Energy Renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible reserves without impact on nature. Use of renewable energy sources in Russia

21.04.2019

In recent decades, qualitative changes have been observed in the world energy sector due to economic, political and technological reasons. One of the main trends is a decrease in the consumption of fuel resources - their share in the global electricity production over the past 30 years has decreased from 75% to 68% in favor of the use of renewable resources (growth from 0.6% to 3.0%).

The leading countries in the development of energy production from non-traditional sources are Iceland (on the share of renewable energy sources accounts for about 5% of energy, mainly geothermal sources), Denmark (20.6%, the main source is wind energy), Portugal (18.0%, the main sources are wave, solar and wind energy), Spain (17.7 %, the main source is solar energy) and New Zealand(15.1%, mainly geothermal and wind energy is used).

The largest global consumers of renewable energy are Europe, North America and Asian countries.

China, the US, Germany, Spain and India have nearly three-quarters of the world's wind farms. Among the countries that are characterized by the best development of small hydropower, China occupies a leading position, Japan is in second place, and the United States is in third. Rounding out the top five are Italy and Brazil.

In the overall structure of installed capacities of solar energy facilities, Europe leads, followed by Japan and the United States. India, Canada, Australia, as well as South Africa, Brazil, Mexico, Egypt, Israel and Morocco have a high potential for the development of solar energy.

The USA is the leader in geothermal power industry. Then come the Philippines and Indonesia, Italy, Japan and New Zealand. Geothermal energy is actively developing in Mexico, in the countries of Central America and in Iceland - there, 99% of all energy costs are covered by geothermal sources. Multiple volcanic zones have promising sources of superheated water, including Kamchatka, the Kuril, Japanese and Philippine Islands, the vast territories of the Cordilleras and the Andes.

According to numerous expert opinions, the global renewable energy market will continue successful development, and by 2020 the share of renewable energy sources in electricity generation in Europe will be about 20%, and the share of wind energy in electricity generation in the world - about 10%.

Use of renewable energy sources in Russia

Russia occupies one of the leading places in the world system of energy resources turnover, actively participates in the world trade in them and in international cooperation in this area. The country's position in the global hydrocarbon market is especially significant. At the same time, the country is practically not represented in the global energy market based on renewable energy sources.

The total installed capacity of power generation plants and power plants using renewable energy sources in Russia currently does not exceed 2,200 MW.

Using renewable energy sources, no more than 8.5 billion kWh of electrical energy is generated annually, which is less than 1% of the total electricity production. The share of renewable energy sources in the total volume of supplied thermal energy is no more than 3.9%.

The structure of energy generation based on renewable energy sources in Russia differs significantly from the global one. In Russia, the resources of biomass thermal power plants are most actively used (share in electricity generation - 62.1%, in heat generation - at least 23% for thermal power plants and 76.1% for boiler houses), while the global level of use of biothermal power plants is 12%. At the same time, wind and solar energy resources are almost not used in Russia, but about a third of electricity generation comes from small hydropower plants (against 6% in the world).

World experience shows that the initial impetus to the development of renewable energy, especially in countries rich in traditional sources, should be given by the state. In Russia, there is practically no support for this sector of the energy industry.

Renewable energy sources (RES) are those resources that a person can use without harming the environment.

Energy using renewable sources is called "alternative energy" (in relation to traditional sources - gas, oil products, coal), which indicates minimal harm to the environment.

The advantages of using renewable energy sources (RES) are related to the environment, reproducibility (inexhaustibility) of resources, as well as the possibility of obtaining energy in hard-to-reach places where the population lives.

The disadvantages of RES energy often include the low efficiency of energy generation technologies based on such resources (at the current time), the lack of capacity for industrial energy consumption, the need for large areas of sowing "green crops", the presence of increased noise and vibration levels (for wind energy), as well as the difficulty of extracting rare earth metals (for solar energy).

The use of renewable energy sources is linked to local renewable resources and government policies.

Successful examples are geothermal plants providing energy, heating and hot water to cities in Iceland; "farms" of solar panels in California (USA) and the UAE; wind farms in Germany, USA and Portugal.

For power generation in Russia, taking into account the experience of use, territories, climate and availability of renewable energy sources, the most promising are: low-capacity hydropower plants, solar energy (especially promising in the Southern Federal District) and wind energy (Baltic Coast, Southern Federal District).

A promising source of renewable energy, but requiring professional technological development, is household waste and methane gas obtained in places of their storage.

Until recently, for a number of reasons, primarily because of the huge reserves of traditional energy raw materials, relatively little attention was paid to the development of the use of renewable energy sources in Russia's energy policy. In recent years, the situation has changed markedly. The need to fight for a better environment, new opportunities to improve the quality of life of people, participation in the global development of advanced technologies, the desire to increase the energy efficiency of economic development, the logic of international cooperation - these and other considerations have contributed to the intensification of national efforts to create a greener energy sector, moving towards a low-carbon economy.

The volume of technically available renewable energy resources in the Russian Federation is at least 24 billion tons of standard fuel.

Lekitsia 4

Alternative energy.

Prof. I.Khuzmiev

General provisions.

Renewable energy sources (RES) are solar radiation, wind energy, the energy of small rivers and watercourses, tides, waves, biomass energy (firewood, household and agricultural waste, animal husbandry, poultry, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, logging) , geothermal energy, small rivers and streams, tides, waves, geothermal energy, as well as dissipated thermal energy (air heat, water of oceans, seas and reservoirs) (Fig. 2.1.)

Fig.2.1. The power of renewable energy sources coming to the ground and the direction of their use. (degree , means 11 )

: http://user.ospu.odessa.ua/~shev/emd_m/nie/doklad.htm

The massive use of renewable and non-traditional energy sources (Table 2.1.) Is one of the ways to solve the energy, environmental and food problems that the entire world community is facing today (Table 2.2.). Their use must be considered from the standpoint of a systematic approach, one of the most important requirements of which is to consider technical systems in time (life cycle) and in space (environment).

Ways to use renewable energy sources

Table 2.1.

The role of RES in solving three global problems Table 2.2.
Type of resources or installations	Energy	Ecology	Food
wind turbines	+	+	+
Small and micro HPPs	+	+	+
Solar thermal installations	+	+	+
Solar photovoltaic installations	+	+	+
Geothermal power stations	+	+/-
Geothermal thermal installations	+	+/-	+
Biomass. Incineration of municipal solid waste	+	+/-
Biomass. Burning of agricultural waste, logging waste and wood processing waste	+	+/-	+
Biomass. Bioenergy waste recycling	+	+	+
Biomass. Gasification	+	+
Installations for the utilization of low-grade heat	+	+
Biomass. Obtaining liquid fuel	+	+	+

Positive influence;

Negative influence;

0 no influence.

Under life cycle usually understood as the structure of the process of development, production, operation. It includes the following stages:

Formation of requirements for the system;

Design;

Manufacturing, testing and fine-tuning of a prototype;

Mass production;

Exploitation;

Modernization;

The first three stages are called external design or macro design. Here the following are determined: the goals of the system, the boundary conditions are determined, the properties of the external environment, the mechanisms and parameters of the system, its quantitative characteristics and connections are studied, and as a result, the terms of reference for the development of the project are formulated. For example, consider the problem of power supply to remote and mobile consumers who need power supply, but due to various reasons(remoteness, terrain difficulties, etc.) it is difficult or impossible. The problems of power supply of such consumers are solved in several ways with the help of:

Various types of classic fuel;

The energy stored in chemical processes;

Renewable, non-traditional energy sources and their combination;

The use of non-traditional solutions to provide energy to individual consumers will improve the social and cultural standard of living of workers, reduce production costs, improve the reliability and quality of energy supply based on local resources, and reduce the anthropogenic impact on the environment. Therefore, for the above consumers, it is necessary to intensify the construction of small and micro hydroelectric power plants, the use of wind, solar, geothermal and bioenergy sources. All of them have their own advantages and disadvantages (Table 2.3.).

Comparison of RES with centralized sources

Table 2.3..

A source	Unit Cost	Unit cost mouth power	Oud. display, weight per	Reliability of power supply	Qualifier service	Ecologist.
energy	prod. Energy	Unit mouth Power	personnel	danger
1. Non-renewable	High	Medium	High	High	High	High
2. Chemical	High	High	High	High	High	High
3. Renewable	Low	High	Medium	Medium	Low	Low
4. Small hydropower.	Low	Medium	Medium	High	Low	Low

Renewable energy sources are of particular interest to consumers located in remote areas, where the population is mainly engaged in agricultural production (Table 2.4.). Classical power supply systems need constant delivery to the places of consumption of expensive liquid fuels, taking into account the delivery of about $2 per 1 liter, the construction of a power transmission line at a cost of more than $20,000 per 1 km, and the construction of power plants at a price of approximately $1,000 per 1 kW of installed capacity. Non-traditional solutions, based on primary energy sources available at the place of consumption, fit well into the programs for the balanced development of remote regions.

Energy consumers in household

Table 2.4..

household consumers.	technological consumers.
Cooking food,	Microclimate in technological premises
Heating and air conditioning	Irrigation and water supply
Water supply and sanitation	Forage preparation
Lighting,	Animal care, treatment
Heating water for domestic purposes,	Vaccination
radio, television, communications,	Obtaining products in animal husbandry and aquaculture
Energy supply for domestic processes	Cleaning and waste disposal
(cleaning, washing dishes, laundry, sewing	Technologies in crop production
Etc.),	Transport operations
Sanitary and hygienic	Drying, pre-treatment and storage of products
Events,	Construction technologies

The main goal of development non-traditional energy there should be a rational use of natural resources, including energy, while maintaining ecological balance and social stability. In this case, the following tasks should be solved:

Improving the standard of living of the population with the help of autonomous energy supply systems based on renewable energy sources,

Decrease in the need for firewood, slowing down the process of clearing the vegetation cover, increasing the efficiency of land use,

Reducing imports of petroleum products and developing our own energy base,

Stabilization of energy prices and ensuring uninterrupted power supply,

Training of qualified personnel in the field of production and consumption of energy resources and their efficient use.

Renewable energy sources - almost inexhaustible and always available thanks to rapid expansion modern technologies. Their use corresponds to the strategy of using various energy sources. Renewable resources are a widely recognized way of protecting the economy from price fluctuations and future environmental costs. Technologies based on the use of renewable energy sources are environmentally friendly due to the absence of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere. Their use does not cause the formation of the greenhouse effect and, accordingly, the climate changes associated with it, and does not lead to the formation of radioactive waste.

The use of RES allows:

To improve the energy security of countries dependent on the supply of hydrocarbon raw materials. The use of RES is an alternative to energy supply in the face of rising oil and natural gas prices.
Improve the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, and improve the ecological state of the environment.
Create new models of highly efficient offshore competitive power equipment
Preserve stocks of available energy raw materials
Increase hydrocarbon resources for technological applications

The use of RES is slowed down for the following reasons:

· Absence necessary laws and regulations for the development and encouragement of consumers and businessmen for the use of renewable energy. Absence government agencies department for managing the processes of introducing renewable energy sources.

· Low solvent demand of the population and organizations. Many subjects of the Russian Federation are subsidized, there are no economic incentives for investing (tax incentives, preferential loans), the absence of an approved federal target program, the absence of mechanisms for financing and return on invested funds, and the insufficient level of economic knowledge of decision-making organizations.

· Lack of ready-made power supply systems for some types of RES, low level of standardization and certification of equipment, underdevelopment of infrastructure, lack of maintenance personnel, insufficient amount of scientific, technical and technological developments, insufficient level of technical knowledge of decision-making organizations.

· Due to the fact that Russia is rich in energy resources, consumers treat them as something infinite and publicly available. This is also facilitated by their relative cheapness compared to world prices.

· Ignorance of the population, leaders and the public about the possibilities of renewable energy. Lack of propaganda in the media about the properties of RES and examples of their use. .

Our future largely depends on the application of technological innovation. Renewable energy sources will be able to influence the change of society as a whole over the coming decades. According to forecasts, the importance and share of renewable energy sources in the overall energy production process will increase. These technologies not only reduce global CO 2 emissions, but also give the necessary flexibility to the energy production process, making it less dependent on limited fossil fuel reserves. According to the consensus of experts, for some period of time, hydropower and biomass will dominate other types of renewable energy sources. However, in the 21st century, the leadership in the energy market will belong to wind energy and solar energy, which are now actively developing. On the present stage wind energy is the fastest growing branch of electricity generation. In some regions, wind energy is already competing with traditional energy based on the use of fossil fuels. At the end of 2002, the installed capacity of wind farms worldwide exceeded 30,000 MW. At the same time, there is a clear increase in worldwide interest in solar power plants, although its current cost is two to three times higher than the cost of traditional energy. Photovoltaics is especially attractive for remote areas that do not have a connection to the public grid. The advanced thin-film technology applied to the production of photovoltaic cells is being actively introduced into large-scale commercial production.

Large energy companies such as Enron, Shell and British Petroleum have recently invested heavily in the development of photo and wind energy. This is one of the most compelling facts about the promising future of renewable energy. Large investments from the world's leading energy companies are also planned in the development of other types of renewable energy sources. One of the most promising markets RES applications in the next 20 years around the world will be developing countries that are currently experiencing problems with energy shortages. For many countries, the mobile nature of these technologies is attractive. Renewable energy installations can be located close to users. In addition, their installation is faster and cheaper compared to the construction of large thermal power plants, which require long transmission lines. Renewable energy sources are also in demand in industrialized countries. A public opinion poll conducted in the US shows that most of the country's energy consumers agree to pay more for "green" (environmentally friendly) energy, and many energy companies can offer it to them. In Europe, thanks to strong public support, the renewable energy market is growing rapidly.

Various scenarios development shows that the share of renewable energy use by 2010 will be from 9.9% to 12.5%. The target of 12% (“ambitious but realistic”) is to be achieved through the installation of 1 million solar roofs, 15,000 MW of installed wind capacity and 1,000 MW of bioenergy installed capacity. The current share of RES in energy production, which is 6%, also includes large hydropower, the development of which is not planned in the future due to negative impact on the environment. The increase in the share of renewable energy sources should be ensured through the development of the energy use of biomass, wind energy (the installed capacity of wind farms should reach 40 GW). It is planned to install 100 million square meters of solar collectors. FEB installed capacity is expected to increase to 3 GWe, geothermal plants to 1 GWt and heat pumps to 2.5 GWt. CO 2 will decrease by 402 million tons. Based on the fact that RES today provide less than 6% of the energy consumption of the EU countries, it is necessary to combine efforts to increase this share. This, in turn, will create an opportunity to export energy and improve the environment. Currently, Europe imports more than 50% of energy, and if not accepted urgent action, this figure could rise to 70% by 2020.

According to the estimates of the European Wind Energy Association, the installation of wind farms with a total capacity of 40 GW will create an additional 320,000 jobs. According to the Photovoltaic Industry Association, a 3 GWe installation will create 100,000 jobs. Federation solar energy considers it possible to provide 250,000 jobs by acting only for the needs of the domestic market and another 350,000 jobs can be created in case of work for export. The White Paper proposes a range of tax incentives and other financial measures to encourage investment in renewable energy, as well as measures to encourage the use of passive solar energy. According to this document: "The set goal of doubling the current share of renewable energy sources to 12% by 2010 is realistically feasible." The share of renewable energy sources in electricity production could rise from 14% to 23% or more by 2010 if appropriate measures are taken. Job creation is one of the most important aspects that characterize the development of renewable energy. The employment potential of the population in the field of renewable energy sources can be estimated from the following data:

It should be noted that when comparing various sources energy price is a key parameter. Renewable energy sources are often considered more expensive than fossil fuels. This conclusion is usually based on an incorrect cost estimate. When we pay our energy bill or fill up the tank of our car, we usually pay less than the full price for energy. The price does not include all costs. There are many hidden costs associated with the use of energy. Hidden social and environmental costs, the risk associated with the use of fossil fuels are the main barriers to the commercialization of renewable technologies. It is generally accepted that modern markets ignore these costs. In fact, the global energy market favors polluting energy sources such as sulphurous coal and oil over environmentally friendly renewables. Until traditional technologies capable of transferring to society a significant part of their costs associated with pollution and health care, renewable sources will be in unequal conditions. And this is despite the fact that RES practically do not worsen the state of the environment and even give such positive effects like job creation, especially in rural areas. Therefore, in order to create a market that operates according to the rules of "fair play", it is necessary to take into account all these costs.

It is very difficult to estimate the costs associated with environmental pollution, and some of them are even difficult to determine. However, studies have shown that they are significant. For example, according to studies by German scientists, the cost of producing electricity from fossil fuels, not including the costs associated with solving the problem of global warming, is 2.4-5.5 US dollars. cent/kW*h. At the same time, the cost of electricity generated by nuclear power plants is 6.1-3.1 US dollars. cent/kW*h. According to another study, SO 2 emissions from coal combustion in US power plants cost US citizens $82 billion annually - additional health benefits. Reduced crop yields caused by air pollution cost US farmers $7.5 billion a year. Significantly, US citizens are actually paying an annual hidden cost associated with the use of energy, in the amount of approximately $109-260 billion. Similar examples can be given for other countries. If additional costs were included in market processes, renewable energy technologies would be in a better position to compete with fossil fuels. Then we could talk about the significant penetration of renewable energy into the global energy market today.

A source: http://www.ecomuseum.kz/dieret/why/why.html

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

"RUSSIAN STATE GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER SERGO ORDZHONIKIDZE"

Faculty of Geoecology and Geography

Department of Ecology and Nature Management

ESSAY

On the course “Technogenic systems and ecorisk”

On the topic of

“Renewable and non-renewable energy sources”

Prepared by:

Student of the ECO-14-2P group

Ruzmetov T.V.

Moscow 2017

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ............ 3

1. Renewable energy resources............................................................... ...................... 4

1.1. Classification of renewable energy sources............................................... 4

1.2. Wind power .............................................................. .......................................... 5

1.3. Hydropower .............................................................. ......................................... 7

1.4 Solar energy............................................... ............................................ 9

1.5 Biomass energy............................................................... ........................................ eleven

2. Non-renewable energy sources............................................................... ........... thirteen

2.1. Representatives of non-renewable energy sources............................................... 14

2.1.1. Coal................................................. ................................................. ..... 14

2.1.2. Oil................................................. ................................................. ..... sixteen

2.1.3. Natural gas................................................ ......................................... 17

2.2. Obtaining atomic energy .............................................................. ....................... 17

2.2.1. Nuclear power plants................................................ ........................ eighteen

2.2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plants .............................................. ............. nineteen

2.2.3. Accidents at nuclear power plants ............................................... ......................................... twenty

Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ..... 21

List of references .............................................................................. ................. 22

Introduction

There are several global problems in the modern world. One of them is the depletion of natural resources. Every minute the world uses a huge amount of oil and gas for human needs. Therefore, the question arises: how long will these resources last if we continue to use them in the same huge amount? It is estimated that the planet's oil reserves will be exhausted by the end of this century. That is, our grandchildren and great-grandchildren will have nothing to use for energy? Sounds scary. Also, the use of traditional minerals has a bad effect on the ecological situation of the world. Therefore, humanity is now increasingly thinking about alternative sources of energy. This is the relevance of this abstract work.

Renewable energy resources

Classification of renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources (RES) are the energy resources of constantly existing natural processes on the planet, as well as the energy resources of products. life activity of biocenters of plant and animal origin A characteristic feature of RES is the cyclical nature of their renewal, which allows the use of these resources without time limits.

Usually, renewable energy sources include the energy of solar radiation, water flows, wind, biomass, thermal energy upper layers of the earth's crust and ocean.

RES can be classified by types of energy:

mechanical energy (energy of wind and water flows);

thermal and radiant energy (energy of solar radiation and heat of the Earth);

chemical energy (energy contained in biomass).

The potential possibilities of RES are practically unlimited, but the imperfection of technology and technology, the lack of the necessary structural and other materials do not yet allow RES to be widely involved in the energy balance. However, for last years In the world, scientific and technological progress is especially noticeable in the construction of installations for the use of renewable energy sources, and in the first place: photovoltaic conversions of solar energy, wind power units and biomass.

The feasibility and scale of the use of renewable energy sources are determined primarily by their economic efficiency and competitiveness with traditional energy technologies. This is due to several reasons:

· Inexhaustibility of RES;

No need for transportation;

· RES are environmentally beneficial and do not pollute the environment;

· Lack of fuel costs;

· Under certain conditions, in small autonomous power systems, RES can be economically more profitable than traditional resources;

· There is no need to use water in production.

Wind power

Wind energy has been used by people for more than 6,000 years. The first simplest wind turbines were used in ancient times in Egypt and China. In Egypt (near Alexandria), the remains of stone windmills of the drum type, built as early as the 2nd-1st centuries, have been preserved. BC e. Windmills were used to grind grain in Persia as early as 200 BC. e. Mills of this type were common in the Islamic world and were brought to Europe by the crusaders in the 13th century.

Starting from the 13th century, wind turbines became widespread in Western Europe, especially in Holland, Denmark and England, for lifting water, grinding grain and setting in motion various machine tools.

Windmills that produce electricity were invented in the 19th century in Denmark. There, in 1890, the first wind farm was built, and by 1908, there were already 72 stations with a capacity of 5 to 25 kW. The largest of them had a tower height of 24 m and four-blade rotors with a diameter of 23 m.

However, in the early 19th and 20th centuries NTP slowed down the development of wind energy. Minerals such as oil and gas have replaced wind as an energy source. But humanity is depleting the natural resources of the Earth at such a pace that the question of returning to the origins again arises, i.e. to a new stage in the development of wind energy.

The most pressing issue of wind energy is the economic efficiency of wind turbines. It is very important to choose right place to install units. For this, there are special characteristics that allow you to choose the right location. The most promising places for the production of energy from wind are coastal zones. In the sea, at a distance of 10-12 km from the coast (and sometimes further) offshore farms are being built. The towers of wind turbines install foundations from piles driven to a depth of up to 30 meters. Other types of underwater foundations, as well as floating foundations, can also be used.

Do not forget that energy efficiency depends on 2 main factors: the direction and speed of the wind.

Wind speed is the main obstacle to the development of wind energy. The wind is characterized not only by long-term and seasonal variability. It can change speed and direction for very short periods of time. In part, short-term fluctuations in wind speed are compensated by the wind turbine itself, especially at high wind speeds, when it starts to slow down its rotation (usually after 13-15 m/s). However, longer changes or a decrease in wind speed affect the output of the wind turbine and the entire wind farm as a whole. But in modern wind energy this shortcoming is minimized by the fact that wind monitoring, which begins at the pre-project stage, continues to be carried out in the future. The accumulated database of wind potential makes it possible to predict the generation of a wind farm already in the 2nd year of its operation 24 hours ahead with a sufficiently high accuracy for electric networks.

All wind turbines can be divided into 2 large type: with a vertical axis of rotation of the rotor and with a horizontal one.

Wind farms with a vertical axis of rotation (a wheel is “mounted” on the vertical axis, on which “receiving surfaces” for the wind are fixed), unlike winged wind farms, they can operate in any direction of the wind without changing their position. The wind turbines of this group are low-speed, therefore they do not create much noise. They use low-speed multi-pole electric generators, which allows the use of simple electrical circuits without the risk of an accident with an accidental gust of wind. The main disadvantages of such units are their short rotation period and low efficiency compared to horizontal wind farms. The side effects of the operation of such installations include the presence of low-frequency vibrations that occur due to rotor imbalance.

The wind energy market is one of the most dynamically developing in the world. Its growth in 2009 is 31%. Until now, wind energy has developed most dynamically in the EU countries, but today this trend is beginning to change. A surge of activity is observed in the US and Canada, while in Asia and South America new markets emerge. In Asia, both India and China recorded record levels of growth in 2005.

Currently, more than 300 companies are engaged in the industrial production of VUE. Denmark, Germany, USA have the most developed industry. Serial production of wind turbines is developed in the Netherlands, Great Britain, Italy and other countries.

hydropower

Man has long used the energy of water and its flow in their needs. Therefore, the history of hydropower dates back to ancient times: even the ancient Greeks used water wheels to grind grain. Over time, technology improved, and in the 19th century the first water turbine was invented. It was created separately by 2 scientists: the Russian researcher I. Safonov in 1837 and the French scientist Fourneuron in 1834. However, M. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky is considered the inventor of the hydroturbine, one might even say the first hydroelectric power station. He demonstrated his invention at an exhibition in Frankfurt. It consisted of a three-phase current generator, which was rotated by a water turbine, and the electricity generated by it was transmitted through 170 km of wires to the entire exhibition area. Currently, water energy makes up more than 60 percent of all renewable energy sources and is the most productive of all (the efficiency of modern hydroelectric power plants is about 85-95%). After that, the "hydropower boom" begins in the world.

The main reasons for such a rapid development of hydropower are the constant renewal of resources by the water cycle in nature and relatively simple mechanisms for extracting energy itself. However, often the construction and installation of hydroelectric power plants is a very labor-intensive and capital-intensive process. This is especially true for the construction of dams and the accumulation of huge masses of water behind them. It is also worth noting that the extraction of hydropower is an environmentally friendly process. But so far, only a small part of the earth's hydropower potential is serving people. Every year, huge streams of water, formed from rains and snowmelt, flow into the seas unused. If it were possible to delay them with the help of dams, humanity would receive an additional colossal amount of energy.

If we describe the operation of a hydroelectric power station, then its principle is to generate energy by a turbine rotated with the help of water falling from an indefinite height. The hydraulic turbine converts the energy of water flowing under pressure into mechanical energy shaft rotation. Exists different designs hydroturbines, corresponding to different flow rates and different water pressures, but they all have only two bladed rims. The axis of rotation of a turbine designed for high flow and low head is usually placed horizontally. Such turbines are called axial or propeller. In all large axial turbines, the impeller blades can be rotated in response to changes in head, which is especially valuable in the case of tidal hydropower plants, which always operate under variable head conditions. Turbines are installed depending on the pressure of the water flow at the hydroelectric power station.

Hydroelectric stations are divided depending on the generated power:

· Powerful - produce from 25 MW to 250 MW and more;

· Medium - up to 25 MW;

· Small hydroelectric power plants - up to 5 MW.

The power of a hydroelectric power station directly depends on the pressure of the water, as well as on the efficiency of the generator used. Due to the fact that, according to natural laws, the water level is constantly changing, depending on the season, and also for a number of reasons, it is customary to take cyclic power as an expression for the power of a hydroelectric station. For example, there are annual, monthly, weekly or daily cycles of operation of a hydroelectric power station.

Hydroelectric stations, depending on their purpose, may also include additional structures, such as locks or ship lifts that facilitate navigation through the reservoir, fish passages, water intake structures used for irrigation, and much more.

Currently, the leaders in the generation of hydropower are Norway, China, Canada, and Russia. The leader in the amount of water energy per capita is Iceland.

Solar energy

The sun is one of the most sources of radiation in our universe. And therefore, it is no coincidence that the energy of a star is increasingly being used by man for processing into electricity. Indeed, the radiation of the Sun, reaching the entire surface of the Earth, has a colossal power of 1.2 * 10 14 kW. And sometimes it is very disappointing that a huge part of this energy is wasted, especially if it is many times greater than the resources of all other renewable energy sources combined. Therefore, in recent years, solar energy has been developing more and more actively, in which solar radiation is used to generate electricity.

However, with the help solar heat it is possible not only to receive current, but to provide thermal conductivity. This is possible thanks to solar collectors, in which water is heated using solar radiation. And now it can be used to heat any structures.
As well as in wind energy, it is very important for solar stations to choose the right place for their construction. It should not be forgotten that Sun rays, before reaching the surface of the Earth, overcome many obstacles. First of all, they include the atmosphere, and in particular the ozone layer. It is thanks to him that life is generally possible on Earth, because it does not let in ultraviolet radiation harmful to all living things. Particles of water vapor, dust, gas impurities and other aerosols contained in the atmosphere also play an important role. They partially scatter radiation.

In general, the amount of radiation reaching the earth's surface depends on:

· Geographic latitude;

The state of the atmosphere;

Climatic features of the territory;

· Heights of the place of reception above sea level;

The height of the sun above the horizon, etc.

The total radiation reaching the Earth is divided into:

· Direct radiation reaching the Earth;

Scattered radiation;

· Antiradiation of the atmosphere.

Based on these values, the total radiation balance of the earth is compiled, according to which the most successful places for the location of solar stations are determined.

You can classify them by:

The type of conversion of solar energy into its other types - heat or electricity

Concentration of energy - with or without concentrators

Technical complexity - simple and complex

Simple installations include desalination plants, water heaters, dryers, furnace heaters, etc.

The complex includes installations that convert the incoming solar energy into electrical energy by means of photovoltaic devices.

Switzerland is one of the leaders in the use of solar energy. At the moment, the country is effectively developing a program for the construction of solar stations. There is also a trend towards the production of solar panels installed on the roofs of buildings or as facades. Such installations can compensate 50…70% of the energy spent on production

Biomass Energy

Biomass includes all substances of organic origin.

1. Wood. For many thousands of years, people have been using firewood for heat, cooking, and lighting. And still in small settlements this type of energy generation is traditionally used. Unfortunately, this all leads to one of the most important problems in the world - deforestation. However, this problem is solved by using the energy of fast-growing trees, such as poplar, willow, etc.

2. Sewage sludge. If you think about it, then in the waters used by man there are huge reserves of energy. When the liquid is settled, a huge amount of solid matter is formed, which, when processed by anaerobic bacteria, can contain about 50% organic matter. However, there are significant challenges in wastewater treatment. The main one is the drying of these waters, since a lot of heat is spent on this, which, in terms of its quantitative characteristics, can exceed theoretical value energy during the complete combustion of the settled substance. Also, this process is not cost-effective from an environmental point of view. After all, when burned, a large amount of carbon dioxide is released. by the most the right option in this case, the production of methane with the help of anaerobic bacteria is considered. But the installations for this are very imperfect, so this method in modern times does not get a big swing.

3. Animal waste. Animal feces contain high quantity organic matter that can be used for energy. However, just as with sewage, manure contains a large amount of moisture, so drying it out is not beneficial. Then there is another option - this is anaerobic decay. With it, methane is obtained, and the remaining substances can be used for soil fertilizers. But it is worth remembering that the amount of the processed substance is much greater in fresher manure, therefore, in order for its processing to be economically profitable, special buildings are needed to collect all the excrement in one place without losing its freshness.

4. Plant residues. After harvesting, unused plant parts always remain. They represent another source of energy. They contain cellulose, a carbonaceous carbohydrate. Due to the relatively small amount of moisture in the remains, they release a lot of energy when burned. The limiting factor in the development of this energy source is the seasonality of crop growth. To ensure the year-round use of plant remains, special facilities are needed for their growth. Also important factors are the need for transportation to the place of processing and the ease of harvesting crops.

5. Food waste. They can also serve as a source of energy. Especially considering that, for example, fruit waste contains more carbon-containing sugars than cereal residues, and meat products significant amount of protein. But the presence of moisture makes it difficult to obtain energy by burning waste. Therefore, it is more expedient to obtain methane from them with the help of bacteria. But here another difficulty arises: food waste is successfully used in animal husbandry. Therefore, this source is practically not developed in our time. The only exceptions are waste in the form of seeds and husks, as well as residues from sugar cane. For example, in countries where a lot of cane grows, its waste goes to the production of ethanol, which, when burned, releases a large amount of energy. The most striking example is the Hawaiian Islands.

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World experience

The introduction of renewable energy sources (RES) is gaining popularity around the world. Australia is one of the world leaders in the installation of photovoltaic power plants, whose share in the Australian electricity industry exceeds 3%. Every year, the country increases the total capacity of solar generation by about 1 GW.

According to this indicator, Australia is overtaken by the UK, where total score solar power plants reaches 12 GW, which is twice as high as in Australia.

The undisputed leader in the field of renewable energy is China, which, together with Taiwan, produces almost 60% of all solar panels in the world.

According to the calculations of the International Energy Agency (IEA), the capacity of generating plants built in China in 2016 alone amounted to 34 GW. However, this is only 1% of the electricity consumed in China, most of which is generated from coal - the country owes a lot to coal thermal power plants. difficult situation in ecology.

The United States also followed the path of transferring energy to renewable sources. But the Trump administration has canceled the Clean Energy Plan adopted by Barack Obama.

Solar panels created by Tesla, San Juan Children's Hospital, Puerto Rico
Reuters

In 2014, as part of Climate Week in New York, RE100 was founded, a structure that brings together companies moving to renewable energy sources. IKEA, Apple, BMW, Google, Carlsberg Group, etc. have joined the RE100. The list of RE100 members is constantly growing. For example, at the end of October, one of the world's largest manufacturers of wind turbines, the Danish company Vestas Wind Systems, joined the organization.

In general, according to the IEA, the share of RES in global electricity production in 2015 was about 24%.

Ecology in question

However, according to experts, not all renewable energy sources are equally environmentally friendly. Some are capable of damaging the environment. In particular, we are talking about hydroelectric power plants. (HPP). According to researchers from Australia and China, the total area of land flooded as a result of the commissioning of hydroelectric power plants is 340 thousand square meters. km, which is slightly less than the area of Germany. Scientists provide relevant information in the publication Trends in Ecology & Evolution.

Due to hydropower plants, many floodplain ecosystems were destroyed, which led to a decrease in species diversity. However, in recent years, hydropower has been losing leadership to new types of generation: solar and wind power. According to experts' forecasts, their share of generation will be equal to the share of hydroelectric power plants by 2030.

Another popular topic among the environmental community is the use of biofuels. For example, from the point of view of the International Energy Agency, bioenergy is potentially capable of occupying about 20% of the primary energy market by the middle of the 21st century.

However, the active introduction of biofuels made from wood and crops can backfire. A multiple increase in the pressure on agricultural land can lead to a reduction in food production. According to the calculations of American researchers, even today the expansion of "fuel" plantings has caused an increase in prices for food raw materials in the United States. In addition, over-reliance on biofuels can lead to deforestation.

In 2012, the European Commission concluded that the transfer of land for fuel plantations should be limited, and producers of fuel from food crops should not receive state support.

A European Union study last year found that palm or soybean oil, from which energy is extracted, releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than any fossil fuel.

“EU-mandated low-cost biofuels based on food products, especially vegetable oils such as rapeseed, sunflower and palm is just a terrible idea,” said Jos Dings, director of research organization Transport & Environment.

Ambiguous, according to experts, are the advantages of electric vehicles from both economic and environmental points of view. At the same time, in a number of countries there are measures of government support for this type of transport.

Tesla Model 3 electric car
Reuters

For example, in Estonia, the buyer of an electric car can count on compensation for 50% of the cost of the car, in Portugal, a subsidy of 5,000 euros is paid for the purchase of an electric car. Russia is also thinking about introducing such subsidies.

Without state support, such cars are not in demand: after the Hong Kong authorities canceled tax incentives for buyers of Tesla electric cars, sales of these cars fell to zero. However, the benefits of electric cars for the environment are not yet obvious.

“Electric vehicles are indeed a very environmentally friendly mode of transport, but in order to connect to the electrical network and power the battery, accumulator, you need to generate this electricity, and this requires a primary source. Today, the number one primary source in the world is not even oil, but coal,” said Russian President Vladimir Putin, speaking at the Russian Energy Week International Forum on Energy Efficiency and Energy Development in early October.

Echo of Fukushima

The topic of renewable energy has gained particular popularity since 2011. After the accident at the Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant, demands to abandon the use of nuclear energy are becoming louder and louder.

Reactor No. 3 of the Fukushima-1 NPP
Self Defense Force Nuclear Biological Chemical Weapon Defense Unit / Reuters

To date, the country that has completely stopped nuclear power plants has become Italy, in the future Belgium, Spain and Switzerland plan to follow the example of Rome. In Germany, the last nuclear power plant is planned to be shut down by 2022. In total, 17 nuclear power plants operated in Germany, which produced about a quarter of all electricity consumed in the country.

According to many experts, the panic around nuclear energy is greatly exaggerated.

“If we subtract the risk of an accident, then nuclear energy does not carry any special risks for the environment,” said Alexander Frolov, deputy director general of the National Energy Institute, in an interview with RT.

Initially, the EU leadership planned to compensate for the curtailment of nuclear energy through gas generation.

“We need more gas. After Berlin's decision, it is gas that will become the driver of growth,” said European Commissioner for Energy Günther Oettinger in 2011.

On average, burning natural gas emits half as much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere as burning other types of fossil hydrocarbons.

privileged position

However, the growth of gas generation was hindered by the high rates of commissioning of alternative energy capacities. In the countries most actively developing renewable energy, by 2014, the load of gas thermal power plants fell. According to the consulting company Capgemini, about 110 GW of gas capacities did not justify the investment and were on the verge of bankruptcy. Approximately 60% of European thermal power plants operating on natural gas were in a difficult situation.

According to a number of experts, the reason for the crisis of traditional energy was not the high competitiveness of RES, but the privileges enjoyed by producers of electricity from renewable sources. "Green" electricity is purchased by the authorities at inflated tariffs on a priority basis.

According to Frolov, this policy leads to an imbalance in the energy sector.

“The sharp increase in the introduction of renewable energy has made gas-fired thermal power plants unprofitable - they began to close,” the expert noted. — Meanwhile, wind and solar generation have a serious drawback: dependence on weather conditions. For example, at the beginning of this year, cloudy and calm weather settled in Germany for about nine days. Renewable energy generation fell by 90%. For local consumers, this came as a shock. The existing base, on which solar and wind stations operate, does not guarantee an uninterrupted supply of electricity. Dependence on the forces of nature - this is a real return to the dark ages.

Lippendorf coal-fired power plant, Saxony, Germany
globallookpress.com
Michael Nitzschke/imagebroker

Against the backdrop of the closure of gas thermal power plants in Europe, the dirtiest generation of electricity is growing - coal, Frolov believes.

For example, in Germany it is planned to build two dozen coal thermal power plants. A paradoxical situation has developed in the country: along with the growth of environmentally friendly energy production, the most environmentally hazardous energy sector is also increasing, the expert noted.

“Technology is getting cheaper and more accessible”

In the last two years, the balance in the European energy market has begun to improve: several gas-fired thermal power plants have been launched in Germany, gas consumption in the European Union has begun to grow. At the end of 2016, the use of natural gas in the European Union increased by 6% compared to 2015.

According to researcher Center for Economic Modeling of Energy and Ecology of the RANEPA Tatyana Lanshina, the development of alternative energy does not carry any risks.

“Although a rapid transition to renewable energy is not possible, those countries that have been working on this for a long time have made great strides. For example, in Denmark, about half of all electricity is generated from renewable energy sources, in Germany - about a third, - the expert noted in an interview with RT. — These countries have been working on this for decades, and other countries can also gradually switch to renewable energy. These technologies are becoming cheaper and more accessible. With regard to subsidies, the entire energy sector enjoys state support, and traditional as well.

Use of renewable energy sources in Russia