Human energy: how to find out your energy potential. Who needs it
A quarter of a century ago, the first non-alcoholic tonic (energy) drink appeared on the European market. Over the past years, the number of brands of such drinks has exceeded one hundred, they are sold in 169 countries around the world, and sales increase by 17% per year, despite the high cost of the product. And against the backdrop of this wild popularity, in one country or another, the sale of tonic drinks is required to be limited, if not completely banned, although they contain neither alcohol nor alcohol. narcotic substances. Well, they didn't deserve a ban, but they should be handled with care.
Four elements
Let's start with the fact that tonic drinks are not intended to quench thirst, but to maintain the physical and mental strength of a tired person who does not have the opportunity to rest. This task is as old as the world. People have been pampering themselves for a long time. The most common stimulant was caffeine. Its source in India and the countries of the Middle East was coffee; in China, India and Southeast Asia - tea; in America, the yerba mate plant, cocoa beans, guarana leaves, and kola nuts. Other tonic plants were also used, including ginseng, eleutherococcus, and Rhodiola rosea. In medieval Japan, sweet energy drinks with ginseng extract were very popular. The first information about them appeared in the 18th century, and in the 20th century their industrial production began. These drinks are still very popular in Southeast Asia.
The appearance of energy drinks in Europe is associated with the name of the Austrian entrepreneur Dieter Mateschitz. In 1984, he met with Asian power engineers, evaluated them and modernized them to suit European tastes. In 1987, the first non-alcoholic energy drink "Red Bull Energy Drink" appeared on the European market, carbonated and with less sugar than its Asian prototype. Then the American companies Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola released their brands of non-alcoholic energy drinks, and now there are much more manufacturers. The recipe of drinks varies, but they always include tonic components, amino acids, B vitamins and carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates, glucose and sucrose serve as sources of energy. Glucose in the body breaks down quickly, sucrose - a little longer. Carbohydrates also include a derivative of glucose - glucuronolactone, which promotes the excretion of metabolic products. Half a liter of energy drink contains about 54 g of sugars, that is, a quarter of a cup. Responding to the demands of the times, most manufacturers produce low-calorie tonic drinks without sugar, with artificial sweeteners, and the energy drink without an energy source has added to the list of such strange products as non-alcoholic beer and decaffeinated coffee.
B vitamins (niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamins B6 and B12) improve cognitive function and stimulate metabolism. By participating in the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, they contribute to the release of energy. A separate line on the list is inositol, or vitamin B8, which protects cell membranes from damage, stimulates mental activity, improves concentration and memory ability, reduces brain fatigue, and helps to survive stress. Inositol is advised to be taken during exams.
The main amino acids in energy drinks are L-carnitine and taurine. Carnitine is synthesized in the body and is involved in lipid (fat) metabolism. In addition, L-carnitine stimulates blood formation, prevents the formation of blood clots, and helps to restore strength after heavy physical exertion.
Taurine is a derivative of the amino acid cysteine, its name comes from the Latin "taurus" - bull, because taurine was first isolated from an extract of ox bile. This is a very common compound that is synthesized in the body of most mammals and is present there in a significant amount (in humans - 1 g per 1 kg of live weight). Taurine increases physical endurance and stress resistance, participates in the supply of hemoglobin to tissues, promotes the breakdown of fatty acids and the removal of harmful substances.
The main tonic component of the vast majority of energy drinks is the plant alkaloid caffeine. Caffeine gently stimulates the central nervous and cardiovascular system, helps to concentrate attention, increases working capacity and increases endurance. Some energy drinks also contain other tonic components, most often ginseng and eleutherococcus. Guarana extract, the main source of caffeine that is added to energy drinks, contains, in addition to caffeine, theobromine and theophylline alkaloids.
The components of energy drinks are selected in such a way as to quickly release energy from sugars and a person's own fat reserves and accelerate the excretion of metabolic products. Their combination should make drinking the drink as effective, pleasant and safe as possible. Now we're talking about security.
How long to
Experts and the media most often pay attention to two components of energy drinks: caffeine and taurine. Taurine in small doses is not dangerous, it is even included in infant formulas. An adult can consume 3 g of taurine daily without harm to health, but it is not known what will happen with regular intake of more. Opponents of energy drinks especially rest on this circumstance. However, the amount of taurine that contains the daily rate of energy drinks cannot affect health. However, taurine is usually remembered when you get tired of scolding caffeine.
According to most doctors, caffeine is the only ingredient in non-alcoholic energy drinks that should be limited. The main complaint against him is undesirable side effects, we wrote about it. An adult can absorb 400 mg of caffeine per day without harm to health. (so much is contained in about 200 ml of espresso or about a liter of regular instant coffee).
During pregnancy, caffeine metabolism slows down, so its effects last longer. In addition, caffeine increases the tone of the uterus and narrows the placental vessels, which is harmful to the unborn child. Therefore, pregnant women should reduce their daily caffeine intake to 200 mg.. Even more severe restrictions exist for children, whose nervous system is very sensitive to the effects of caffeine. Babies 4-6 years old are allowed 45 mg of caffeine per day, at 7-9 years old - 62.5 mg, children from 10 to 12 years old - 85 mg. The norm for adolescents over 13 years old is 2.5 mg per 1 kg of body weight. As a cardiovascular stimulant caffeine is definitely bad for hypertensive patients.
A daily dose of 750-1000 mg leads to the development of caffeine addiction and withdrawal. It is expressed in the fact that people who have spent from 12 to 24 hours without caffeine suffer from a headache, sometimes very severe, complain of fatigue, drowsiness, Bad mood, nausea and vomiting, muscle pain and distracted attention.
In case of excessive consumption of energy drinks, caffeine poisoning is possible. In the United States alone, dozens of cases are reported each year. Symptoms of poisoning - nervousness, anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, gastrointestinal disorders, nausea, dizziness, tremor, high blood pressure, tachycardia - well known, but easily confused with others anxiety disorders. Therefore, both the patient and the doctors cannot always correctly diagnose.
In fairness, we note that not only fans of energy drinks are at risk of poisoning with caffeine, but also passionate lovers of coffee and tea. To avoid unfortunate consequences, first of all, adequate labeling of products is needed, which indicates the amount of caffeine and other ingredients. And in this respect, high-quality energy drinks are safer than coffee, because the can of the drink indicates how much caffeine it contains, but not on a cup of coffee.
In 2007, the National Standard was introduced Russian Federation"Non-alcoholic tonic drinks" - GOST R 52844-2007, which defines the requirements for the composition and labeling of the product. Participated in its development working group non-profit organization "National Consumer Protection Fund", the Research Institute of Nutrition of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Russian Research Institute of the Brewing, Non-Alcoholic and Wine Industry of the Russian Agricultural Academy and the largest producers of non-alcoholic tonic drinks interested in having no complaints about their drinks: Red Bull LLC, PepsiCo Holdings LLC and Coca-Cola Export Corporation. The standard defines non-alcoholic tonic drinks as "soft drinks special purpose containing caffeine and/or other tonic components in an amount sufficient to provide a tonic effect on the human body”. This amount is strictly defined: caffeine should be at least 151 and not more than 400 mg / l. So Coca-Cola, with its 100-130 mg of caffeine per liter, does not apply to energy (tonic) drinks.
The standard also stipulates that non-alcoholic energy drinks should contain no more than two tonic components, and all ingredients, their concentration and sources of caffeine must be indicated on the labels.
The standard also defines daily allowance drink consumption. In Russia, it is limited to 500 ml per day, which is about 160 mg of caffeine, about the same as in a large mug of strong coffee. The package indicates how many cans per day you can drink. Energy drinks should not be sold in liter containers.
There are no restrictions on the sale of non-alcoholic energy drinks in our country, the consumer is protected only by the label, which clearly indicates to whom these drinks can be and in what quantity, and who cannot. The wise will read, the wise will take note.
Some countries have adopted standards for daily caffeine intake similar to those in Russia. In the UK and Canada, pregnant women are not allowed to exceed 200 mg of caffeine per day from all sources, while adults are allowed 400 mg. The code of international food standards of the EU countries, the Codex Alimentarius, does not provide for restrictions on the daily consumption of non-alcoholic energy drinks and the content of caffeine in them. In fact, he does not even single out energy drinks as a separate category, but classifies them as water-based carbonated flavored drinks. In the United States, there are no restrictions on the content and daily intake of caffeine either. So be careful with drinks made for the US market by a little-known company: one can can contain up to 500 mg of caffeine, which exceeds the safe daily allowance, and sometimes the concentration of caffeine is not indicated at all.
Who needs it
The National Standard defines non-alcoholic tonic (energy) drinks as special purpose drinks. Their intended consumers are truck drivers who spend many hours behind the wheel; people working day and night; students who, on the last night before the exam, try to learn everything they have been told about the whole semester. From one serving (250 ml, 80 mg of caffeine) drowsiness disappears, attention and reaction speed increase, endurance increases. In many situations, an energy drink is more convenient to drink than coffee because it is not hot.
There is a lot of research on the effectiveness of energy drinks. They are often funded by manufacturers who seek to prove that their caffeine solution is as good as any other.
Energy drinks help students by increasing their nighttime performance: they drive away drowsiness, improve concentration and memory, and reduce reaction time. A serving of an energy drink increases stamina, blood pumping and oxygen consumption by 8-10%. This reaction is within physiological norm, but, given that in modern sports, the participants are separated by centimeters or fractions of a second, the effect is tangible. Until recently, caffeine was on the list of doping drugs, the International Olympic Committee excluded it just a few years ago.
What is not written on the label
In general, energy drinks have proven to be effective, and they are readily consumed. And they even think that the more they drink, the best result achieve. This is the time to remember that caffeine intake must be limited. This task is entirely up to the consumer, since there are no official restrictions on the sale of non-alcoholic energy drinks. However, there are situations when even the most responsible and informed consumer cannot avoid an overdose.
Let's imagine a student who needs to study all night, and even think something during the exam in the morning. The daily allowed dose of an energy drink will not be enough for him. By one in the morning, he gets tired and drinks the first can of energy drink, let's say the smallest one - 80 mg of caffeine. The drink is valid for two or three hours, and no later than four in the morning our student drinks the second portion, at seven o'clock - the third and before the exam - the fourth. Five hundred milliliters, twice the safe daily dose. For healthy person a single overdose will pass without a trace. However, it must be borne in mind that after the tonic effect comes fatigue, lethargy, and decreased ability to work. It's natural physiological response on any stimulant, not just caffeine. And the greater the dose of the stimulant, the stronger and longer will be its inhibitory effect.
A person who has been invigorating himself with energy drinks all night will be completely broken in the morning. He will need rest, and let him provide it for himself, and not go to celebrate the successful passing of the exam, drinking another can of tonic. Unfortunately, the marking does not warn about this, which is a pity, because there are people for whom night vigils are a way of life. They drink energy drinks to go out all night or play games. computer games. During the day they have no time to sleep - they need to work or study. So they cheer themselves up all day strong tea, coffee or an energy drink to get through the evening and sit down at the computer, and then complain of tachycardia and chest pain. Or half asleep, they cross the road without looking around. But are energy drinks to blame?
In 2007, 28-year-old English motorcycle racer Matthew Penbross thundered all over the world. He drank four cans of an energy drink daily, despite frequent complaints of chest pain. Energy drinks replaced food for him, because of work, Matthew did not have time to eat. And now, having already undermined his health, this poor fellow, during long, responsible races, drank eight cans of energy drinks, 80 mg of caffeine each, in five hours, and his heart could not stand it - it stopped. The doctors were there and young man managed to save. When he was strong enough to make statements, he made claims to the labeling. Yes, he read on the can that you can drink no more a certain amount, but no one warned that an overdose could be fatal.
The jar is small, the label is even smaller. Warnings for all occasions simply will not fit there, and the likelihood that energy drinks will be released with an accompanying brochure is extremely small. Therefore, we formulate a few more simple rules that did not fit on the label.
- An energy drink does not replace food and sleep, it only helps to get through an emergency, and then you need to eat and rest. It is impossible to regularly use the energy drink in order to stay awake at night, otherwise the person will be upset nervous system and get tachycardia. You need to drink a drink in small portions, 250 ml each, no more than once every three to four hours.
- You should not go to the other extreme, trying to cheer yourself up with a tiny amount of caffeine. If the dose of the stimulant is insufficient, it will not have a tonic effect, but it will certainly depress. This old rule is supported by recent studies at Loughborough University (Human Psychopharmacology, 2006, 21, 299-303). Sleep-deprived subjects were given an "energy drink" containing just 30 mg of caffeine or a decaffeinated placebo of the same flavor. The stimulant could not overcome drowsiness, and people who drank it reacted more slowly and more often made mistakes when performing control tasks than the participants in the experiment who got the placebo.
With alcohol or without?
There are two complaints about caffeinated drinks. One of them, the danger of overdose, we have just discussed. The second problem is the combined consumption of energy drinks and alcohol. Energy drinks are diluted with alcohol for taste, like others soft drinks, or drink it specifically to drink more alcohol, believing that caffeine reduces the effect of intoxication. Some manufacturers are counting on fans of fun nightlife, and not on the swots and professional drivers, as evidenced by the names of their energy drinks produced with the words "gorilla", "sex" and "cocaine".
On the Russian market there have even been alcohol-infused energy drinks and, in the US, alcoholic drinks containing caffeine and some other ingredients commonly found in non-alcoholic tonic drinks (such as taurine and B vitamins). Both options should be considered alcoholic beverages rather than tonics. Large companies producing non-alcoholic energy drinks do not promote the joint consumption of their products with alcohol.
Caffeine does not speed up the elimination of alcohol from the body. A non-alcoholic energy drink or coffee does alleviate some of the signs of intoxication: headache, dry mouth and incoordination. However, other symptoms, such as a change in gait, deterioration of vision and diction, as well as the ability to drive a car, are not affected by the addition of an energy drink.
According to studies conducted in many countries, students who drink alcohol mixtures with energy drinks are more likely to have accidents and other unpleasant stories than those who consume undiluted alcohol.
Specialists from the University of Utrecht, the University of Vienna and the University of the West of England analyzed a large number of scientific literature on the co-administration of caffeine with alcohol and concluded that energy drinks do not affect the amount of alcohol consumed (Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 2009, 99 (1-3), 1-10). If we were talking about experiments on mice, when one group is given energy drinks, the other is given a placebo, and then they are watched how much vodka they drink and how they then behave in the maze, one could talk about the effect of the drink on alcohol consumption and behavior.
But with people the situation is different, they themselves decide what to drink, and the choice depends on the personality of the drinker. According to the data collected by the researchers, people who mix alcohol with energy drinks prefer a risky lifestyle with booze and drugs. They love thrills, are aggressive, tend to break the rules traffic, so they often get into all sorts of unpleasant stories. So all problems are associated with excessive alcohol consumption, and not with energy drinks. With scientific point There is nothing reprehensible in the mixture of non-alcoholic tonic drinks with alcohol, provided, of course, that consumers are clearly aware of the amount of pure alcohol they drink and know their rate.
Each person is endowed with his own energy. It can be congenital and acquired during life. There is a weak energy, there is a strong energy. From it, according to experts in the field of esotericism, depend personal development and success in life. How do you define your energy field?
certain ways there is no verification of a person for his energy power. Energy cannot be measured with instruments. But you can feel it. As a rule, an active, purposeful and active person has a large supply of vitality. And the one who constantly complains about the lack of energy is a person with low level energy.
Energetically the strong man, as a rule, always happens in good mood. He knows how to manage his emotions, knows what he is capable of and boldly goes to the goal. He is not afraid of difficulties, as he feels the strength in himself that will help in a difficult period.
People with strong energy more fortunate in life. They are upbeat and positive. Their attitude and good health makes it easy to achieve your goals. Energetic people can manipulate others, defend their point of view and win attention to their person.
However, those with high energy potential must be able to control their power. It is better to direct energy for the benefit of yourself and others. If you have strong energy, that is, the likelihood that you can jinx a person and harm his biofield.
An energetically weak person often gets sick. If he has any good ideas, then he is in no hurry to implement them. People from weak energy get tired quickly. They are easily offended or influenced.
The level of energy can be more accurately determined by dreams. What do you dream about most often?
If in a dream you often go to rivers, forests, thickets, then this is a sign of an excess of energy. Also, this may be evidenced by music in a dream or a belt that tightly tightens your waist. In this case, everything is in order with energy. True, it happens that excessive energy does not lead to good. If your forces are directed for good, they will real benefit. But if you waste it on trifles, then nothing good from your inner strength you won't get.
If you constantly dream of ruins, old houses, abysses, emptiness, hunger, thirst, quarrels, fights, narrow roads and corridors, then you lack vitality. This is a sign that you urgently need to change your life and restore energy.
Do not rush to despair if you suddenly realize that you are not energetically strong. There is an opinion that human energy is constantly changing. It can be congenital, hereditary (its level depends on many factors, such as the place of birth, the energy of birth, the circumstances of birth, etc.) and acquired.
The acquired energy can change depending on the lifestyle a person leads, what he does, where he lives and with whom he communicates. Based on this, you can easily improve your energy level. There are many ways to do this.
- First, you need to fully eat and adjust the daily routine.
- Secondly, it is necessary to be alone with yourself and your thoughts more often in order to better understand yourself and your desires.
- Thirdly, it is necessary to give preference to the business that brings moral satisfaction.
- Fourth, you should communicate more with people who set you up for positive emotions.
Knowing your energy potential, you can independently strengthen it (if it is weak), or direct it to right direction to achieve goals. Possessing inner strength, you can achieve whatever you want. The main thing is to constantly work on energy, not to let it fail and to be able to control it when necessary.
23.10.2013 16:31
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s-,p-,d-, orbitals using boundary surfaces.
Quantum numberm l called magnetic . It determines the spatial arrangement of the atomic orbital and takes integer values from - l to + l through zero, that is 2 l+ 1 values (Table 27).
Orbitals of the same sublevel ( l= const) have the same energy. Such a state is called degenerate in energy. So p-orbital - three times, d- five times, and f are seven times degenerate. Boundary surfaces s-,p-,d-, orbitals are shown in fig. 7.
s -orbitals spherically symmetrical for any n and differ from each other only by the size of the sphere. Their maximally symmetrical shape is due to the fact that at l= 0 and μ l = 0.
Table 27
Number of orbitals on energy sublevels
|
Orbital quantum number |
Magnetic quantum number |
Number of orbitals with a given value l |
|
m l | ||
|
–2, –1, 0, +1, +2 | ||
|
–3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3 |
p -orbitals exist at n≥ 2 and l= 1, so there are three possible orientations in space: m l= -1, 0, +1. All p-orbitals have a nodal plane dividing the orbital into two regions; therefore, the boundary surfaces are dumbbell-shaped, oriented in space at an angle of 90° relative to each other. The axes of symmetry for them are the coordinate axes, which are denoted p x , p y , p z .
d -orbitals determined by the quantum number l = 2 (n≥ 3), at which m l= –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, that is, they are characterized by five variants of orientation in space. d-orbitals oriented with blades along the coordinate axes are denoted d z² and d x ²– y², and oriented by the blades along the bisectors of the coordinate angles - d xy , d yz , d xz .
Seven f -orbitals corresponding l = 3 (n≥ 4) are shown as boundary surfaces.
quantum numbers n, l and m do not fully characterize the state of an electron in an atom. It has been experimentally established that the electron has one more property - spin. Simplistically, spin can be represented as the rotation of an electron around its own axis. Spin quantum number m s has only two meanings m s= ±1/2, which are two projections of the angular momentum of the electron on the selected axis. electrons with different m s indicated by arrows pointing up and down.
The sequence of filling atomic orbitals
The population of atomic orbitals (AO) with electrons is carried out according to the principle of least energy, the Paulia principle, the Hund rule, and for many-electron atoms, the Klechkovsky rule.
The principle of least energy requires that electrons populate the AO in order of increasing electron energy in these orbitals. This reflects the general rule - the maximum stability of the system corresponds to the minimum of its energy.
Principle pauli (1925) forbids electrons with the same set of quantum numbers to be in a multi-electron atom. This means that any two electrons in an atom (or molecule, or ion) must differ from each other by the value of at least one quantum number, that is, there can be no more than two electrons with different spins (paired electrons) in one orbital. Each sublevel contains 2 l+ 1 orbitals containing no more than 2(2 l+ 1) electrons. It follows from this that the capacitance s-orbitals - 2, p-orbitals - 6, d-orbitals - 10 and f-orbitals - 14 electrons. If the number of electrons for a given l sum from 0 to n– 1, then we get the formula Bora–Bury, which determines the total number of electrons in a level with a given n:
This formula does not take into account the interelectronic interaction and ceases to be valid when n ≥ 3.
Orbitals with the same energy (degenerate) are filled according to rule Gunda : the electron configuration with the maximum spin has the lowest energy. This means that if there are three electrons in the p-orbital, then they are arranged as follows: , and the total spin S=3/2, not like this: , S=1/2.
Klechkovsky's rule (principle of least energy). In multielectron atoms, as in the hydrogen atom, the state of the electron is determined by the values of the same four quantum numbers, but in this case the electron is not only in the field of the nucleus, but also in the field of other electrons. Therefore, the energy in many-electron atoms is determined not only by the main, but also by the orbital quantum number, or rather, their sum: the energy of atomic orbitals increases as the sum increasesn + l; with the same amount, the level with the smaller one is filled firstnand bigl. The energy of atomic orbitals increases according to the series:
|
1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s≈3d<4p<5s≈4d<5p<6s≈4f≈5d<6p<7s≈5f≈6d<7p. |
So, four quantum numbers describe the state of an electron in an atom and characterize the energy of the electron, its spin, the shape of the electron cloud and its orientation in space. When an atom passes from one state to another, the electron cloud is restructured, that is, the values of quantum numbers change, which is accompanied by absorption or emission of energy quanta by the atom.
Malyugin 14. External and internal energy levels. Completion of the energy level.
Let us briefly recall what we already know about the structure of the electron shell of atoms:
ü the number of energy levels of the atom = the number of the period in which the element is located;
ü the maximum capacity of each energy level is calculated by the formula 2n2
ü the outer energy shell cannot contain more than 2 electrons for elements of period 1, more than 8 electrons for elements of other periods
Once again, let us return to the analysis of the scheme for filling energy levels in elements of small periods:
Table 1. Filling of energy levels
for elements of small periods
Period number | Number of energy levels = period number | Element symbol, its ordinal number | Total electrons | Distribution of electrons by energy levels | Group number |
|
|
H +1 )1 | +1 H, 1e- | |||||
|
He + 2 ) 2 | +2 No, 2nd | |||||
|
Li + 3 ) 2 ) 1 | + 3 Li, 2e-, 1e- | |||||
|
Be +4 ) 2 )2 | + 4 Be, 2e-,2 e- | |||||
|
B +5 ) 2 )3 | +5 B, 2e-, 3e- | |||||
|
C +6 ) 2 )4 | +6 C, 2e-, 4e- | |||||
|
N + 7 ) 2 ) 5 | + 7 N, 2e-,5 e- | |||||
|
O + 8 ) 2 ) 6 | + 8 O, 2e-,6 e- | |||||
|
F + 9 ) 2 ) 7 | + 9 F, 2e-,7 e- | |||||
|
Ne + 10 ) 2 ) 8 | + 10 Ne, 2e-,8 e- | |||||
|
Na + 11 ) 2 ) 8 )1 | +1 1 Na, 2e-, 8e-, 1e- | |||||
|
mg + 12 ) 2 ) 8 )2 | +1 2 mg, 2e-, 8e-, 2 e- | |||||
|
Al + 13 ) 2 ) 8 )3 | +1 3 Al, 2e-, 8e-, 3 e- | |||||
|
Si + 14 ) 2 ) 8 )4 | +1 4 Si, 2e-, 8e-, 4 e- | |||||
|
P + 15 ) 2 ) 8 )5 | +1 5 P, 2e-, 8e-, 5 e- | |||||
|
S + 16 ) 2 ) 8 )6 | +1 5 P, 2e-, 8e-, 6 e- | |||||
|
Cl + 17 ) 2 ) 8 )7 | +1 7 Cl, 2e-, 8e-, 7 e- | |||||
18 Ar |
Ar+ 18 ) 2 ) 8 )8 | +1 8 Ar, 2e-, 8e-, 8 e- |
Analyze table 1. Compare the number of electrons in the last energy level and the number of the group in which the chemical element is located.
Have you noticed that the number of electrons in the outer energy level of atoms is the same as the group number, in which the element is located (the exception is helium)?
!!! This rule is true only for elements major subgroups.
Each period of the system ends with an inert element(helium He, neon Ne, argon Ar). The external energy level of these elements contains the maximum possible number of electrons: helium -2, the remaining elements - 8. These are elements of group VIII of the main subgroup. The energy level similar to the structure of the energy level of an inert gas is called completed. This is a kind of strength limit of the energy level for each element of the Periodic system. Molecules of simple substances - inert gases, consist of one atom and are distinguished by chemical inertness, i.e., they practically do not enter into chemical reactions.
For the remaining elements of the PSCE, the energy level differs from the energy level of the inert element, such levels are called unfinished. The atoms of these elements tend to complete their outer energy level by donating or accepting electrons.
Questions for self-control
1. What energy level is called external?
2. What energy level is called internal?
3. What energy level is called complete?
4. Elements of which group and subgroup have a completed energy level?
5. What is the number of electrons in the outer energy level of the elements of the main subgroups?
6. How are the elements of one main subgroup similar in the structure of the electronic level
7. How many electrons at the outer level contain the elements of a) group IIA;
b) IVA group; c) Group VII A
View answer
1. Last
2. Any but the last
3. The one that contains the maximum number of electrons. As well as the outer level, if it contains 8 electrons for period I - 2 electrons.
4. Elements of group VIIIA (inert elements)
5. The number of the group in which the element is located
6. All elements of the main subgroups on the external energy level contain as many electrons as the group number
7. a) the elements of group IIA have 2 electrons in the outer level; b) group IVA elements have 4 electrons; c) elements of group VII A have 7 electrons.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Determine the element according to the following criteria: a) it has 2 electronic levels, on the outer - 3 electrons; b) has 3 electronic levels, on the outer - 5 electrons. Write down the distribution of electrons over the energy levels of these atoms.
2. What two atoms have the same number of filled energy levels?
View answer:
1. a) Let's establish the "coordinates" of the chemical element: 2 electronic levels - II period; 3 electrons at the outer level - III A group. This is a 5B bur. Scheme of distribution of electrons by energy levels: 2e-, 3e-
b) III period, VA group, element phosphorus 15Р. Scheme of distribution of electrons by energy levels: 2e-, 8e-, 5e-
2. d) sodium and chlorine.
Explanation: a) sodium: +11 )2)8 )1 (filled 2) ←→ hydrogen: +1)1
b) helium: +2 )2 (filled 1) ←→ hydrogen: hydrogen: +1)1
c) helium: +2 )2 (filled 1) ←→ neon: +10 )2)8 (filled 2)
*G) sodium: +11 )2)8 )1 (filled 2) ←→ chlorine: +17 )2)8 )7 (filled 2)
4. Ten. Number of electrons = serial number
5 c) arsenic and phosphorus. Atoms located in the same subgroup have the same number of electrons.
Explanations:
a) sodium and magnesium (in different groups); b) calcium and zinc (in the same group, but different subgroups); * c) arsenic and phosphorus (in one, main, subgroup) d) oxygen and fluorine (in different groups).
7. d) the number of electrons in the outer level
8. b) the number of energy levels
9. a) lithium (located in group IA of period II)
10. c) silicon (IVA group, III period)
11. b) boron (2 levels - IIperiod, 3 electrons in the outer level - IIIAGroup)