Higher nervous activity, the development of intelligence in children. Stages of the formation of higher nervous activity in a child. Features of the higher nervous activity of children

05.04.2019

The nervous system of higher animals and humans is the result of long-term development in the process of adaptive evolution of living beings. The development of the central nervous system took place, first of all, in connection with the improvement of perception and analysis of influences from the external environment.

At the same time, the ability to respond to these influences with a coordinated, biologically expedient response was also improved. The development of the nervous system also proceeded in connection with the complication of the structure of organisms and the need for coordination and regulation of the work of internal organs. To understand the activity of the human nervous system, it is necessary to get acquainted with the main stages of its development in phylogenesis.

The emergence of the central nervous system.

In the most low-organized animals, for example, in the amoeba, there are still no special receptors, no special locomotor apparatus, or anything similar to the nervous system. With any part of its body, an amoeba can perceive irritation and react to it with a kind of movement by the formation of an outgrowth of protoplasm, or pseudopodia. By releasing the pseudopod, the amoeba moves to the stimulus, such as food.

In multicellular organisms, specialization arises in the process of adaptive evolution different parts body. Cells appear, and then organs adapted for the perception of stimuli, for movement and for the function of communication and coordination.

Emergence nerve cells not only made it possible to transmit signals over a greater distance, but also served as a morphological basis for the rudiments of the coordination of elementary reactions, which leads to the formation of an integral motor act.

In the future, as the animal world evolves, there is a development and improvement of the apparatuses of reception, movement and coordination. A variety of sensory organs appear, adapted for the perception of mechanical, chemical, temperature, light and other stimuli. Intricately arranged locomotor apparatus adapted, depending on the lifestyle of the animal, for swimming, crawling, walking, jumping, flying, etc. As a result of the concentration, or centralization, of scattered nerve cells into compact organs, the central nervous system and peripheral nerve pathways arise. Along one of these paths, nerve impulses are transmitted from receptors to the central nervous system, along others - from centers to effectors.

The human body is a complex system of numerous and closely interconnected elements, united into several structural levels. The concept of the growth and development of an organism is one of the fundamental concepts in biology. The term "growth" is currently understood as an increase in the length, volume and weight of the body of children and adolescents associated with an increase in the number of cells and their number. Development is understood as qualitative changes in the child's body, consisting in the complication of its organization, i.e. in the complication of the structure and function of all tissues and organs, the complication of their relationships and the processes of their regulation.

The growth and development of the child, i.e. quantitative and qualitative changes are closely interrelated with each other. Gradual quantitative and qualitative changes occurring during the growth of the organism lead to the appearance of new qualitative features in the child.

The entire period of development of a living being, from the moment of fertilization to the natural end individual life, called - ontogenesis (Greek ONTOS - being, and GINESIS - origin). In ontogenesis, two relative stages of development are distinguished:

Prenatal

Postnatal

Prenatal - begins from the moment of conception until the birth of the child.

Postnatal - from the moment of birth to death of a person.

Along with the harmony of development, there are special stages of the most abrupt abrupt atomic - physiological transformations.

In postnatal development, there are three such "critical periods" or "age crisis".

Table 1

An important biological feature in the development of a child is that the formation of their functional systems occurs much earlier than they need.

The principle of the advanced development of organs and functional systems in children and adolescents is a kind of "insurance" that nature gives a person in case of unforeseen circumstances.

Functional system - called a temporary association various bodies the child's body, aimed at achieving a result useful for the existence of the body.

The few physiological data available indicate that the younger school age(from 7 to 12 years old) - a period of relatively "quiet" development of the highest nervous activity... The strength of the processes of inhibition and excitation, their mobility, balance and mutual induction, as well as a decrease in the strength of external inhibition, provide opportunities for the child's broad education. This is the transition "from reflex emotionality to the intellectualization of emotions"

However, only on the basis of teaching writing and reading does the word become an object of the child's consciousness, increasingly moving away from the images of objects and actions associated with it. A slight deterioration in the processes of higher nervous activity is observed only in the 1st grade in connection with the processes of adaptation to school. It is interesting to note that at primary school age, on the basis of the development of the second signaling system, the conditioned reflex activity of the child acquires a specific character characteristic only of humans. For example, in the development of autonomic and somatomotor conditioned reflexes in a number of cases, children have a response only to an unconditioned stimulus, and a conditioned one does not cause a reaction. So, if the subject was given a verbal instruction that after the call he will receive cranberry juice, then salivation begins only upon presentation of an unconditioned stimulus. Such cases of “non-formation” of the conditioned reflex appear the more often, the more older age the subject, and among children of the same age - among more disciplined and capable ones.

Verbal instruction significantly accelerates the formation of conditioned reflexes and in some cases does not even require unconditioned reinforcement: conditioned reflexes are formed in a person in the absence of direct stimuli. These features of conditioned reflex activity determine the enormous importance of verbal pedagogical influence in the process of teaching and educational work with younger schoolchildren.

Of particular importance for the teacher and educator is the following age period - adolescence (from 11-12 to 15-17 years). This is the time of great endocrine transformations in the body of adolescents and the formation of secondary sexual characteristics in them, which in turn affects the properties of higher nervous activity. The balance of nervous processes is disturbed, great strength acquires excitement, the increase in the mobility of nervous processes slows down, the differentiation of conditioned stimuli worsens significantly. The activity of the cortex is weakened, and at the same time the second signaling system. Figuratively this period could be called “mountain gorge”.

All functional changes lead to mental imbalance in the adolescent (irascibility, “explosive” response even to minor irritations) and frequent conflicts with parents and teachers.

The situation of a teenager, as a rule, is aggravated by the increasingly complicated demands on him from adults and, above all, from school. Unfortunately, today not every teacher takes into account the functional capabilities of children in their work, hence the difficulties that the teacher and most parents face in their communication with adolescents.

Only correct healthy regimen, a calm atmosphere, a solid program of classes, physical culture and sports, interesting extracurricular work, kindness and understanding on the part of adults are the main conditions for the transition period to pass without the development of functional disorders and related complications in the child's life.

Senior school age (15-18 years) coincides with the final morphological and functional maturation of all physiological systems human body... The role of cortical processes in the regulation of mental activity and physiological functions organism, the cortical processes that ensure the functioning of the second signaling system are of leading importance.

All properties of the main nervous processes reach the level of an adult. If at all the previous stages the conditions for the development of the child were optimal, then the higher nervous activity of older students becomes orderly and harmonious.

Changes in higher nervous activity in children and adolescents under the influence of various factors.

Higher nervous activity provides a person with adequate adaptation to the action of environmental factors, therefore, certain environmental influences cause various changes in higher nervous activity. Depending on the strength external influence changes in higher nervous activity can fluctuate within normal limits or go beyond them, becoming pathological.

Changes in higher nervous activity in children and adolescents in the course of training sessions

Training sessions require intense work of the brain, and above all of its higher section - the cerebral cortex. Those cortical structures that are associated with the activity of the second signaling system and complex analytical and synthetic processes work especially intensively. Naturally, the load on the nerve elements should not exceed their functional capabilities, otherwise pathological changes in higher nervous activity are inevitable. If the training sessions at the school are organized according to hygienic requirements, then the changes in higher nervous activity do not go beyond the normal range. Usually at the end school day there is a weakening of the excitatory and inhibitory processes, a violation of induction processes and the relationship between the first and second signaling systems. These changes are especially noticeable in younger schoolchildren.

It is important to note that the inclusion of labor and physical education lessons in training sessions is accompanied by less pronounced changes in higher nervous activity at the end of the school day.

Active rest after school is of great importance for maintaining the normal working capacity of students: outdoor games, sports, walks in the fresh air. Especially essential to maintain a normal level of higher nervous activity has night sleep... Insufficient duration of night sleep in schoolchildren leads to impaired analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, difficulty in the formation of conditioned reflex connections and an imbalance in the ratio between signaling systems. Compliance with the hygiene of night sleep normalizes the higher nervous activity, and all its disturbances observed as a result of inadequate sleep disappear.

Changes in higher nervous activity under the action of pharmacological drugs and chemicals.

Various chemicals, changing the functional state of the cortical cells and subcortical formations of the brain, significantly alter the higher nervous activity. Usually, the effect of chemicals on the higher nervous activity of an adult and a child is characterized by similar changes, but in children and adolescents, these changes are always more pronounced. Tea and coffee containing caffeine are far from harmless in this regard. In small doses, this substance enhances the cortical process of excitation, and in large doses it causes its oppression and the development of transcendental inhibition. Large doses of caffeine also cause adverse changes in autonomic functions. Due to the fact that in children and adolescents, the processes of excitation somewhat prevail over the processes of inhibition, regardless of the type of their higher nervous activity, the use of strong tea and coffee is undesirable for them.

Nicotine has a significant effect on the higher nervous activity of children and adolescents. In small doses, it inhibits the inhibitory process and enhances excitation, and in large doses it also inhibits the excitation processes. In a person, as a result of prolonged smoking, the normal ratio between the processes of excitation and inhibition, and the efficiency of cortical cells is significantly reduced.

A particularly destructive effect on the higher nervous activity of children and adolescents is the use of various drugs, including alcohol. Their effect on higher nervous activity has much in common, usually the first phase is characterized by a weakening of inhibitory processes, as a result of which excitation begins to predominate. This is characterized by an increase in mood and a short-term increase in performance. Then the excitatory process is gradually weakened and inhibitory develops, which often leads to the onset of heavy narcotic sleep.

In children, addiction to drugs and alcohol is usually not observed. In adolescents, however, it comes very quickly. Of all drug addiction, alcoholism is especially widespread in adolescents, which leads to a rapid degradation of the personality. The teenager becomes vicious, aggressive and rude. The transition from domestic drunkenness to alcoholism in adolescents occurs in about two years. Intoxication in adolescents is always characterized by more pronounced changes in higher nervous activity in comparison with adults: they very quickly experience inhibition of cortical processes. As a result, consciousness control over behavior is weakened, instincts begin to manifest sharply, which often brings adolescents to the dock. For teachers and educators to organize effective fight against alcoholism among adolescents, it is necessary to promote hygienic knowledge not only among adolescents, but also among parents, since, according to data special studies, among juvenile delinquents, about 70% "got acquainted" with alcohol at the age of 10-11, and in most cases it was the fault of their parents.

There is evidence that children aged 8 to 12 years received drinks from their parents for the first time in 65% of cases, at the age of 12-14 years - in 40%, at the age of 15-16 years - in 32%.

Pathological changes in higher nervous activity in children and adolescents.

Pathological changes in higher nervous activity should include long-term chronic disorders, which can be associated with both organic structural damage to nerve cells and functional disorders of their activity. Functional disorders higher nervous activity is called neuroses. Long-term functional disorders of higher nervous activity can then turn into organic, structural ones.

A teacher or educator often meets in their work with various manifestations of neurotic reactions in children and adolescents and therefore must have an idea of the nature of neuroses and the peculiarities of their course in children. of different ages... This knowledge will help them in time to notice the appearance of neurotic disorders of higher nervous activity in a child, and after consulting a doctor, organize the optimal pedagogical correction these violations.

In modern pathology of higher nervous activity and psychiatry, three main forms of neuroses are distinguished:

neurasthenia,

obsessive-compulsive disorder

psychasthenia.

Neurasthenia - characterized by overstrain of the inhibitory or excitatory process in the cerebral cortex. The processes of conditioned inhibition suffer especially often with neurasthenia. The cause of these disorders can be excessive mental and physical stress and various traumatic situations for the psyche. The manifestation of neurasthenia is different: there is a sleep disorder, loss of appetite, sweating, palpitations, headaches, low efficiency, etc. Patients become irritable, they are characterized by excessive fussiness and awkwardness of movements.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder - characterized by obsessive thoughts, fears or drives. The cause of these neuroses is sometimes associated with overwork, illness and the peculiarities of higher nervous activity.

Hysteria - associated with the pathological predominance of the first signaling system over the second, the subcortex above the cerebral cortex, which is expressed in a significant weakening of the second signaling system. This neurosis is characterized by increased sensitivity to external irritation, extreme mood lability and increased suggestibility. There are known cases of hysterical blindness, deafness, paralysis, etc. Hysterical fits are widespread.

Psychasthenia - characterized by the predominance of the second signal system and weakness of the subcortex, therefore, patients are distinguished by the poverty of drives and emotions. They often have a tendency to pointless philosophizing.

It should be noted that adolescents and especially girls from 12 to 15 years old are characterized by a neurosis specific only for this age. This is anorexia nervosa associated with the idea of losing weight and manifests itself in a sharp restriction of oneself in food. This neurosis usually occurs in adolescents with high intellectual development but suffer from increased self-esteem.

Especially often neurotic disorders and various mental illnesses are manifested in children aged 2 to 3.5 years and during puberty (12 to 15 years). In this regard, during such periods, called crisis, educational work should be carried out especially carefully, since an inadequate attitude towards children in crisis or critical periods can provoke the development of mental illness.

nerve neuron brain hypoxia

Stages of the formation of the highest
nervous activity
child. Dominant principle
Gavrilova Yu.A.
Doctor of the highest category
Candidate of Medical Sciences

Ontogenesis is divided into two periods: prenatal
(intrauterine) and postnatal (after birth).
prenatal - from the moment of conception and formation of the zygote to
birth;
postnatal - from the moment of birth to death.
The prenatal period, in turn, is divided into three
period: initial, embryonic and fetal.
The initial (pre-implantation) period in humans
covers the first week of development (from the moment
fertilization before implantation in the uterine lining).
The embryonic (pre-fetal, embryonic) period - from
the beginning of the second week until the end of the eighth week (from the moment
implantation before the completion of the organ laying).
The fetal (fetal) period begins from the ninth week and
lasts until birth. At this time, increased growth occurs.
organism.

The postnatal period of ontogenesis is subdivided into
eleven periods:
1st - 10th day - newborns;
10th day - 1 year - infancy;
1-3 years - early childhood;
4-7 years old - first childhood;
8-12 years old - second childhood;
13-16 years old - adolescence;
17-21 years old - adolescence;
22-35 years - the first mature age;
36-60 years - the second mature age;
61-74 years old;
from 75 years old - old age,
after 90 years - long-livers.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

During embryogenesis, nerve tissue
develops from a dorsal thickening of the ectoderm
- the neural plate, which forms by bending
the neural groove, and then the neural tube. Part
cells located above the neural tube
form a ganglion plate and a nervous
crest.
From neural tube neurocytes are formed and
neuroglia of the brain and spinal cord.
From the ganglionic plate - neurons and neuroglia
ganglia.
Stage three, stage five brain bladders: 1st -
cerebral hemispheres, 2nd - intermediate
brain, 3rd - midbrain, 4th - hindbrain, 5th -
medulla

Neurulation (scheme).
A - stage of the neural plate;
B - stage of the neural groove;
B - stage of the neural tube.
1 - nerve groove;
2 - nerve roller;
3 - cutaneous ectoderm;
4 - chord;
5 - somite mesoderm;
6 - neural crest
(ganglion plate);
7 - neural tube;
8 - mesenchyme;
9 - endoderm.
The cells of the neural crest migrate and produce elements of the spinal,
cranial, autonomic ganglia, arachnoid and soft cerebral
membranes, pigment cells (melanocytes), cells of the medulla
adrenal glands.

Antenatal period

In the antenatal period, the opportunity
the development of conditioned reflexes has not been proven.
Even at premature babies conditional
reflexes are not developed during
(approximately) the term of prematurity. but
the structure of the cerebral cortex reaches
high differentiation by the end
antenatal period of development, which is associated with
its intensive functioning.
BUT.

For 2-3 months. before birth, the fetus, responding with distinct movements to a sudden sound stimulus, with the repetition of the sound, gradually reduces the

For 2-3 months. before birth, the fetus, reacting
distinct movements to a sudden sound
irritation, when the sound is repeated gradually
reduces motor reaction and then
completely stops movement. If after
this to give other irritants, including
other sounds, you can again observe the motor reaction of the fetus. Thus, in
second
half
antenatal
period
function
bark
should
define
how
indicative research

Neonatal period

Neonatal period (from birth to 1 month). TO
at the end of the first week of life, the child develops
conditioned reflex at the time of feeding. So, for
strict regimen 30 minutes before feeding
leukocytosis and increased gas exchange are detected,
and then the child wakes up. Nictitating
conditioned reflex (conditioned stimulus - bright
light, unconditioned - vibration), motor defensive to sound (unconditioned stimulus, electrocutaneous irritation) are also formed in
the end of the first - the beginning of the second week of the child's life.

Neonatal period

By the end of the second week of life appears
conditioned sucking reflex to "position
feeding "(Bekhterev - Shelovanov reflex).
Conditioned stimuli are the position
the baby's body, typical for feeding, and
tactile, proprioceptive and vestibular
irritation that occurs when
swaddling before feeding;
the reinforcement is feeding.

Infant age

Breast age (from 1 to 12 months), in a child on the 2nd
month of life there is a specific
human, social in nature
the need for communication with an adult. In that
period due to the maturation of the central nervous system and analyzers, and
also by the influence of the external environment and others
child of persons, GNI is developing rapidly: rapidly
are developed and become more durable
conditioned reflexes, they are developed
internal inhibition, emotions appear on
the environment and people around you,
after 6 months speech begins to develop.

12 months

By the end of the 1st year or a little later, when the child does
the first steps, a very important stage of knowledge begins
environment. Moving on your own, bumping
on objects, feeling them and even tasting them, a child
takes over
feeling
three-dimensionality
space,
significantly complementing your visual and auditory
perception, develops important skills of active
knowledge of the world. At this stage, motor development is often
associated with speech: the more confidently the child moves, the
better he masters speech, although deviations in
the form of dissociation of these functions.

Cognition

Cognitive
activity
in
aged 1-3 years. At the 2nd year of life, she
inextricably linked to muscle
feelings resulting from
manipulating the object. Thinking
the child in the early stages is formed as
Thinking in action.

2nd year

In the 2nd year of life, the foundations are laid
mental activity, preparation is in progress To
independent
walking,
To
speech
activities.
Perception
various
irritants, contact with the outside world
have for them during this period great value.
Deficiency of irritations, their monotony is noticeable
affect the further mental
development.

2nd year

Under the age of 2-2.5 years, a child,
how
usually
sociable,
friendly, easy to enter into
contact with strangers, rarely experiences a feeling of fear.

2-3 years

2nd and 3rd year child behavior
life strikes stormy and persistent
research
activities.
The child reaches for every object,
touches him, feels, pushes, tastes
raise. The leading role belongs to the hand,
therefore it is necessary to learn how to play
skills (cubes, drawing), household
skills
(independent
dressing,
fastening buttons, lacing shoes and

3rd year

Gradually, the child develops
system
adequate
action
with
various objects: on the chair he
sits down, eats with a spoon, drinks from a cup. If
actions
baby
with
subject
limit,
his
cognitive
activity turns out to be impoverished,
at the same time it lingers in its
development and thinking.

3rd year

In the 3rd year of a child who has already mastered phrasal speech
and having, although small, but its own
life experience, there is a very strong craving for
independence. One of the consequences of this
aspiration is stubbornness, not always understandable
parents. This stubbornness and self-will is significant
increase if parents try to limit
independence of the child. In this age period
various neurotic reactions can be observed
psychogenic and somatogenic nature.

3-5 years

IN
age
3-5
years old
is improving
conditioned reflex activity, increases
number of dynamic stereotypes, pronounced
play activities that contribute to the development
intelligence. For this age, stormy
manifestations of emotion, which, however, have an unstable
character, therefore this period called age
affectivity. Children try to assert themselves
highlight among other children, attract attention.
At this age, the character changes significantly
orienting reactions: they used to strive all
touch, now they ask the questions: "What is this?",
"The name of?" etc. The child determines the shape of the object
already "by eye".

5-7 years

The period from 5 to 7 years is characterized by the fact that
strength, mobility and
balance of nervous processes. This is
expressed in increased efficiency
cerebral cortex, more stability
of all kinds internal braking decreasing
generation of excitation. This is why children
are now able to focus on
for 15-20 minutes or more. Developed
conditioned reflex reactions are less amenable
external braking.

5-7 years

Children begin to read, write, paint,
are very active in learning about the outside world,
surrounding objects - everything strives
disassemble, unscrew, break, peep
"Inward" is still asked a lot
questions.
Children
already
in
condition
manage your behavior based on
preliminary verbal instructions.

5-7 years

They are
may
hold
program
actions,
consisting of
from
a number of
motor operations. As known,
anticipatory reactions
actions are formed with the participation
frontal cortex. Precisely to the 7-year-old
age, morphological
maturation
frontal
department
bark
large hemispheres.

5-7 years

Between the ages of 5 and 7, it increases
the role of abstract thinking. If before
until now the main thing was thinking in
action,
then
now
starts
dominate verbal thinking with
inner speech. The baby starts
use concepts that are already
abstracted
from
action.
A seven-year-old assesses himself as
important
personality,
but
own
activity
how
publicly
significant.

Junior school age

Junior school period (girls from
7 to 11 years old, boys from 7 to 13 years old). Have
a child of 7-8 years old has well developed motor skills
and
speech,
he
knows how
thin
analyze the situation, he has developed
feeling of "psychological distance" in
relationships with adults. In the same time
he does not yet have sufficient self-criticism
and
self-control,
not
worked out
ability
To
long
concentration;
in
activities
game elements prevail.

Junior school age

It should be noted that starting from the 7-year-old
age boys in maturing systems
organism and development
GNI lag behind
girls for about 2 years. In that
aged basic nervous processes
(excitement and inhibition) have
significant
by force,
mobility,
poise and approaching
that of an adult. All kinds
internal
braking
developed
good enough.

Teenage years

Adolescence (boys from
13 to 17 years old, girls from 11 to 15 years old).
During this critical period, which also
called transitional (pubertal),
changes significantly
conditioned reflex activity
adolescents, and their behavior is characterized by
a clear predominance of excitement.

Teenage years

Reactions in strength and character are often
inadequate to the stimuli that caused them
and
accompanied by
redundant
additional
accompanying
movements of the arms, legs and trunk (especially in
boys), just as it was in
early age. Conditional inhibition,
especially
differentiating,
weakens. This is due to the increased
excitability of the central nervous system, weakening of the process
braking and, as a result, irradiation
excitement.

Teenage years

The rate of formation of conditioned reflexes
on the
immediate
(visual,
sound, tactile) stimuli now
increases while the process
education
conditional
reflexes
on the
verbal signals are difficult, i.e.
there is a weakening of the value of the second
signaling system. Speech in adolescence
age clearly slows down, responses to
questions tend to become very
concise and stereotyped, a vocabulary like
would be impoverished.

Teenage years

In order to get an exhaustive
an answer for some reason, it is necessary
ask a number of additional questions.
Pursuit
to be
adults
maybe
manifest in imitation of habits
adults,
in
overthrow
of all
authorities,
active
resistance
any coercive measures. In adolescents
there is interest in such problems as
meaning of life, love, happiness.

Teenage years

IN
this
period
vegetative
regulation
imperfect: excessive sweating is noted,
instability of blood pressure, dermatrophic disorders, lability of vascular
reactions.
Acceleration phenomena observed in recent
decades are likely to have an impact on
shaping
neuropsychic
functions.
However, somatic development in puberty
period is somewhat ahead of the neuropsychic,
what
maybe
drive
To
functional
disorders of the nervous system.

Teenage years

The listed changes are explained
hormonal
restructuring
organism
(puberty), worsening
nutrition and supply of the brain
oxygen. This is due to
the fact that the development of cardiovascular
the system lags behind the growth of the body; Besides,
increasing the functions of the adrenal glands and others
glands internal secretion leads to
increased adrenaline in
blood and, naturally, to vasoconstriction.

Teenage years

Therefore, in adolescents in transition
rapid fatigability is noted
mental and physical
(dizziness, sometimes shortness of breath, often
pain, increased heart rate).
period
as with
loads
head
For girls, this period is more difficult than
at
boys,
at
which
functional
disorders are less pronounced. Apparently, these
differences are due to greater motor
the activity of boys, training of the cardiovascular system and the central nervous system, which is partially
smoothes the indicated functional disorders.

Teenage years

Around the middle of the transition period
adolescents have mental
imbalance with abrupt transitions
from one state to another - from euphoria to
depression and vice versa, a sharp critical
attitude
To
adults,
negativism,
affective states, extreme
resentment; girls have a tendency to
tears.

Teenage years

Period
hormonal
restructuring
the body requires a reasonable attitude
adults to adolescents. Conflicts between
adolescents and their parents often
arise due to underestimation of the features
GNI during puberty.
Correct, healthy rhythm, calm
situation,
benevolence,
interesting activities for teenagers, including
including physical education, are
good prevention of functional
disorders.

Teenage years

Gradually
starts
level off
hormone
imbalance, the lag in the development of the cardiovascular system is eliminated, the conditions for the activity of the central nervous system are improved.
Neurons become more mature, synthesis increases
nucleic acids, the metabolism of nerve cells, increases
the role of the frontal areas of the cortex, the specialization ends
various parts of the cerebral cortex in perception and
assessment of information, interhemispheric integration, and how
consequently, the IRR is optimized. Latent
periods of reactions to verbal stimuli, increases
internal inhibition. Better at the age of 17-18
memory, GNI reaches its perfection, the body
considered ripe.

Dominant

L.S. Vygotsky identified several interest groups
("dominant") teenager:
- "egocentric dominant" (interest in one's own
personality);
- "the dominant was given"
distant events);
(subjective
significance
- "dominant effort" (craving for resistance, to
overcoming, to a volitional effort that can
manifest in negative forms - in stubbornness,
hooliganism, etc.);
"dominant
romance "
unknown, risky, to
heroism).
(pursuit
adventures,

Features of the higher nervous activity of children

Education of the first conditional reflexes. Higher nervous activity is manifested in the formation of conditioned reflexes. Have premature baby it is possible to develop conditioned reflexes during that period of his life when he should not have been born yet. This indicates that at least a few weeks before birth, the cortical cells are mature enough to exhibit their specific function. It is hardly possible, however, to speak of any elements of higher nervous activity during the period intrauterine development... The environment surrounding the fetus is very constant, and therefore there are no conditions that are necessary for the formation of conditioned reflexes.

The moment a child is born is a sharp transition to new, qualitatively different conditions of his existence. The born child encounters various stimuli of the external and internal environment, which, being repeatedly combined with the action of unconditioned stimuli, can acquire a signal value. Therefore, conditioned reflexes begin to form already in the first days after the birth of a child. Observations have shown

that even during the neonatal period, a conditioned alimentary peflex appears on the position of the body, which is usual for the act of feeding. As soon as the body of the child was given such a position, he began to make sucking movements, to open his mouth. At the same time, the child often had searching movements of his head. The first signs of the formation of such a natural conditioned reflex sometimes appeared on the 9th, and in most infants on the 10-12th day of life, that is, after several dozen combinations of body position (conditioned stimulus) and feeding (unconditioned stimulus). After the first appearance, the reflex is not strong enough for some time: sometimes giving the body a feeding position does not cause any food reactions, or they are very weak.

Another feature of this conditioned reflex is also characteristic:

A food reaction (especially sucking movements) at first occurs on various changes body position. Only after a few days (most often on the 16-20th day) a distinction of similar stimuli is formed and a conditioned reflex arises only to a completely definite position of the body for feeding. This indicates that by the middle of the first month of life, the child develops not only positive, but also negative conditioned reflexes.

Artificial food and defensive conditioned reflexes to sound and some other stimuli can be developed already on the 5-6th day of life, but subject to a very large number of reinforcements.

Formation of conditioned reflexes in the first months of life. In experiments on animals, Pavlov established that in adult dogs in a laboratory setting, the first artificial conditioned reflexes are developed more slowly than the subsequent ones. The slow formation of the first conditioned reflex is explained by inductive inhibition associated with the emergence of an orienting reaction to a new stimulus and to a new, unfamiliar environment.

In the first days of a baby's life, not only the first, but also subsequent reflexes are slowly formed. This is mainly due to the easily occurring irradiation of inhibition in the cerebral cortex, which usually manifests itself in the child falling asleep during the experiment. With the accumulation of natural conditioned connections, the rate of formation of new conditioned reflexes increases, reflexes become more stable, their latent (latent) period decreases, that is, the time interval from the moment the conditioned stimulus is turned on until the appearance of a response. Already by the end of the 1st or the beginning of the 2nd month of life, food and defense conditioned reflexes become somewhat stronger and can be formed from any receptors. The rate of formation of new conditioned reflexes increases: gross differentiations are easily formed, that is, differentiations into stimuli that are significant

are very different from each other. However, at first, differentiations are not strong enough and are easily destroyed.

In the following months, more and more positive and negative conditioned reflexes are formed. A significant increase in the total fund of the formed conditioned connections is accompanied by a faster and more subtle discrimination (differentiation) of similar stimuli. At the same time, both positive and negative conditioned reflexes become stronger.

The above natural conditioned food reflex initially arises on the position of the body for feeding, and later (usually by the end of the 2nd month) the appearance of the mother's breast also acquires the meaning of a conditioned stimulus, but only in combination with the position of the body for feeding. Separately nor either does not induce a food reflex. Even later (by about 3 months), the food reflex is formed both to the complex of two stimuli and to the isolated action of the visual stimulus, that is, in the appearance of the mother's breast without a body position for feeding. The mere position of the body for feeding ceases to induce a reflex. Consequently, the visual stimulus gel became a strong component of the complex stimulus, and the position of the body for feeding became weak. Thus, already in the first months of life, conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli are formed, and the significance of individual components of the complex can change.

The meaning of the orienting reflex. In the higher nervous activity of a person special meaning has an orientation-research reflex. “In our country,” Pavlov wrote, “this reflex goes extremely far, finally manifesting itself in the form of that curiosity that creates a science that gives and promises us the highest, boundless orientation in the world around us.” The great importance of the unconditioned orientation reflex is determined by the fact that it is overgrown with a multitude of conditioned orientation reflexes.

Children have the simplest unconditioned orienting reflexes already in the first days after birth. However, the first conditioned orienting reflexes can be observed much later, usually at the 3rd or 4th month of life. Subsequently, conditioned orientational reflexes are formed very easily and begin to play an essential role in the child's behavior. The most important conditioned stimulus causing an orientation reflex. becomes speech.

Dynamic stereotype. The outside world affects the organ-. low by a whole system of simultaneous and sequential stimuli. In many cases, such a system is repeated many times, or, as they say, it becomes stereotypical. Irritation stereotype when enough repetitions leads to the formation of a corresponding mosaic of focus in the cerebral cortex.

of excitation and inhibition, arising and replacing each other in a constant sequence.

An external stereotype leads to the formation of a system, or, as Pavlov says, dynamic stereotype in the work of the cortex: the cortex, and after it the whole organism, responds to the same repetitive conditions with the same firmly established system of processes.

The formation of dynamic stereotypes in the cerebral cortex underlies the acquisition by a child of such motor skills as walking, running, jumping, skating, using a spoon, knife and fork, etc.

The development of a stereotype is a complex synthesizing activity of the cortex. It is a difficult and sometimes (with a complex stereotype) and extremely difficult task for the nervous system. At the same time, maintaining an already developed stereotype does not require any significant tension in cortical activity. It is particularly lightweight, and therefore. a form of higher nervous activity that is beneficial for the body, the dynamic stereotype often becomes very strong, stubborn, difficult to destroy and alter.

Habits and skills are well-established systems, or complexes of conditioned reflexes, associated with a dynamic stereotype in the cerebral cortex. Any educational educational work necessarily leads to new dynamic, stereotypes that enrich and improve cortical activity.

In everyday life, you can find many examples illustrating, on the one hand, the difficulty of forming complex stereotypes, and on the other hand, the persistence of already developed stereotypes. the difficulty of reworking them. The child learns to walk for a long time, and later to run and jump; it is far from immediately given to him the skills to hold a pencil and a pen in his hand and to own them. It was a lot of work to teach the child to be neat, to be polite, to strictly adhere to the daily routine, that is, always get up at the same time, straighten the bed, do exercises, wash, etc.

The formed and consolidated skills and habits are carried out by the child easily and willingly, without causing negative emotions. They persist for many years and form the basis of human behavior. Motor skills acquired in childhood (for example, ice skating, playing the piano), and then not used for 20-30 years, recover easily and quickly.

An example of the persistence of complex stereotypes can serve as the enormous work that requires "retraining" if a child, learning to write, play the piano, or sports movements, instilled in himself the wrong skills. The difficulty of reworking stereotypes forces us to pay special attention to the correctness of the methods of education and training from the first years of life.

Speech development

The value of speech components of complex stimuli. From the first months of a child's life, people are surrounded. He sees them, hears human speech, which very early becomes a conditioned stimulus signaling the presence of a person. By 3-5 months, the child can distinguish between the mother, and often other people in contact with him. And the voice is always an essential sign of discrimination. By the same time, the child begins to distinguish intonation associated with the corresponding facial expressions.

By virtue of imitative reflex, pronounced already in the first months of life, the child begins to repeat the sounds of human speech. And even before the formation of conditioned connections to words, the first speech noises begin to appear in him - pharyngeal, laryngeal, palatine, labial, etc., which then gradually differentiate, leading to the formation of speech sounds. Each sound pronounced by the child evokes afferent impulses from both the hearing organ (the child hears the sounds pronounced) and from the speech organs - from the vocal cords, language and the entire speech apparatus. These impulses, reaching the cortex, become signals that subsequently acquire the most important role in the establishment of conditioned speech connections.

In the second half of the first year of life, the child develops conditioned reflexes to speech stimuli. However, as a rule, these stimuli act in conjunction with other stimuli, for example, the environment, the position of the child's body, the type speaking person, his facial expressions. And the speech stimulus itself can only be conditionally called speech, because the child distinguishes not words with their semantic meaning, but the pitch and timbre of the voice and intonation. Therefore, replacing the spoken words with others while maintaining intonation will not affect the child's reaction, while a change in the situation and especially in the type of person speaking can lead to inhibition of the reaction. So, a child of 8 months to the mother's question "Where is daddy?" turn his head towards his father. But if a stranger asks the same question instead of the mother, there may be no reaction.

Only gradually does the word itself acquire a dominant meaning as a certain combination of speech sounds. The child begins to react not to the entire complex, which even includes the situation, but to individual words or phrases spoken by others, which become signals of certain unconditioned, and later conditioned stimuli. Gradually, words become signals of certain actions, phenomena and relationships between these phenomena.

Early stage development of speech. The child's speech begins from the moment when the individual speech sounds pronounced by him or their

combinations acquire the meaning of conditioned stimuli, becoming the same signals of certain immediate stimuli, like the words pronounced by others. The formation of the first words and the establishment of their correct pronunciation usually does not occur immediately, requiring "a long period of time. As a rule, the combinations of speech sounds pronounced by the child at first only vaguely resemble the words they should denote, and then, having changed, singing a series of successive changes, turn into correctly pronounced words.

In the 2nd year of life, the child, often not yet having formed the pronunciation of individual words, begins to combine two and then three words in his speech reactions, thus forming the first simplest combinations of words, often acquiring the character of sentences. So, for example, from a child of this age you can hear "da-ko" or "da-moko" (give milk), "go-go" or "go-go" (let's go for a walk), "mi-ka" (Misha porridge ), etc. These combinations of words can appear either as a result of mastering a ready-made speech stereotype, which should be considered as a complex stimulus, or, which is usually observed somewhat later, by synthesizing individual previously acquired words with their transformation into a new stereotype. The emergence of speech stereotypes is a significant moment in the development of speech activity, namely the transition from simple speech reactions to chain reactions, characterized by the combination of words into sentences.

For the first stage of speech development (until about the middle of the 2nd year of life), relatively rapid formation of conditioned connections between the audible word and the immediate stimulus is characteristic, and connections are formed not only for objects, but also for actions with them. If, for example, you gradually show the child various new manipulations with the doll, accompanying them with the appropriate words (give, take, put, feed, shake the doll), then very quickly he will respond to each verbal stimulus with the correct action. However, speech reactions are formed in a child slowly, provided that the speech stimulus is repeatedly accompanied by showing and transferring to the hands of the immediate stimulus (for example, the same doll).

If a child has developed a strong speech reflex to one specific object, then the first presentation of a similar object (for example, a doll of a different size, in different clothes) may not give a reaction. At the same time, if a child who stroked a cat several times began to call it "ki" (pussy), then at the first presentation of a fur hat, stroking it, he can call it "ki", while a speech reaction will be absent when showing a drawn or rubber cats. To generalize the word "ki" it is necessary to establish a connection between this word and the corresponding

irritation of visual, tactile, auditory and other receptors.

Development of speech in preschool age. If in the 2nd year of life the child begins to pronounce new words only after repeated, persistent repetition of them by others, and a conditioned connection is formed between the spoken word and a specific immediate stimulus, then after two years the process of mastering speech changes dramatically. Words become not only dominant signals when they act on auditory receptors, but also the main reaction to these signals, and often to immediate stimuli. Gradually, more and more often, speech reflexes are formed not by reinforcing a new stimulus with an unconditioned one (for example, food, defensive, orienting) and not by combining a direct stimulus with its speech designation, but on the basis of previously developed speech conditioned reflexes.

In the 3rd year of life, the child easily repeats and remembers words that are new to him, uttered by others, even in those cases when the meaning, meaning of these words remains incomprehensible to him. Such memorization of words uttered for the first time and "incomprehensible" for the child can serve as an example of the formation "from the spot" of new conditioned reflexes. The vocabulary of children's speech reaches 200-400 words. Through imitation, the child learns the pronunciation of both individual words and the simplest speech stereotypes, that is, standard, memorized combinations of words. By this age, speech signals, that is, signals of the second system, begin to play a major role in organizing the child's behavior.

The development of children's speech, that is, giving the language a harmonious, meaningful character with the use of an appropriate grammatical structure, to a large extent depends on the correct construction of the speech of the people around. By imitation, the child pronounces those words and those turns of speech that he perceives from others.

By the age of 2 "/ 2-3 years, the child's speech fund consists not only of individual words and speech stereotypes, but also of phrases that are formed in the process of a speech reaction and are various combinations of previously familiar words with the use of case endings, verb forms and other features grammatical structure of speech.

The possibility of using the vocabulary of speech and its grammatical structure to construct new combinations in relation to these conditions is explained by a sharp increase in the number of conditioned connections that underlie the speech function of the brain. It is the richness of conditioned speech connections, always interacting with each other, that creates the possibility of unlimited creativity of more and more new combinations of them. Although speech stereotypes (for example, standard, memorized turns of speech) retain their meaning throughout a person's life, however, along with the vocabulary

becoming a language, they serve only as the basis for constructing a meaningful

In a child, an increase in the number of conditioned speech connections necessary for the correct use of speech in each specific case occurs under the influence of audible speech. The child repeats what others are saying, easily memorizing new words and turns of speech. Repeatedly listening to the tales and poems read to him, he reproduces them first in parts, and then in whole. Moreover, each new memorized combination of words and expressions enriches his second-signal conditional connections, leading to an increasingly free and varied use of the available fund of words and speech stereotypes. Hence, it is clear what a great importance for the development of speech is memorizing and retelling stories and poems.

The process of mastering speech and thinking inevitably leads to the fact that the bulk of conditioned connections in the cerebral cortex of a person is formed with the obligatory and dominant participation of speech stimuli, which accelerates the formation of conditioned connections, both positive and negative.

In the development of the child's higher nervous activity, it is essential generalization individual speech stimuli and the formation of conditioned speech connections into words denoting species, and then abstract concepts. The emergence of generalizing concepts is based on the process of selective irradiation of excitation. Gradually, the analytic-synthetic activity of the child's cerebral cortex becomes a source of more and more generalizations, leading to abstraction from reality, to the emergence of abstract thinking. Learning to read and write further enhances the value of second-signal stimuli, contributing to the further development of thinking processes.

There are still no special receptors, no special locomotor apparatus, or anything similar to the nervous system. With any part of its body, an amoeba can perceive irritation and react to it with a kind of movement by the formation of an outgrowth of protoplasm, or pseudopodia. By releasing the pseudopod, the amoeba moves to the stimulus, such as food.

In multicellular organisms, in the process of adaptive evolution, specialization of various parts of the body arises. Cells appear, and then organs adapted for the perception of stimuli, for movement and for the function of communication and coordination.

The appearance of nerve cells not only made it possible to transmit signals over a greater distance, but also served as a morphological basis for the rudiments of the coordination of elementary reactions, which leads to the formation of an integral motor act.

In the future, as the animal world evolves, there is a development and improvement of the apparatuses of reception, movement and coordination. A variety of sensory organs appear, adapted for the perception of mechanical, chemical, temperature, light and other stimuli. A complexly arranged motor apparatus appears, adapted, depending on the lifestyle of the animal, to swimming, crawling, walking, jumping, flying, etc. As a result of the concentration, or centralization, of scattered nerve cells into compact organs, the central nervous system and peripheral nervous paths. Along one of these paths, nerve impulses are transmitted from receptors to the central nervous system, along others - from centers to effectors.

The entire period of development of a living being, from the moment of fertilization to the natural end of an individual life, is called ontogenesis (Greek ONTOS - being, and GINESIS - origin). In ontogenesis, two relative stages of development are distinguished:

Prenatal

Postnatal

Prenatal - begins from the moment of conception until the birth of the child.

Postnatal - from the moment of birth to death of a person.

Along with the harmony of development, there are special stages of the most abrupt abrupt atomic - physiological transformations.

In postnatal development, there are three such "critical periods" or "age crisis".

An important biological feature in the development of a child is that the formation of their functional systems occurs much earlier than they need.

The principle of the advanced development of organs and functional systems in children and adolescents is a kind of "insurance" that nature gives a person in case of unforeseen circumstances.

A functional system is a temporary association of various organs of a child's body, aimed at achieving a result useful for the existence of the body.

The nervous system is the leading physiological system of the body. Without it, it would be impossible to unite countless cells, tissues, organs into a single hormonal working whole.

The functional nervous system is divided “conditionally” into two types:

Thus, thanks to the activity of the nervous system, we are connected with the world around us, are able to admire its perfection, learn the secrets of its material phenomena. Finally, thanks to the activity of the nervous system, a person is able to actively influence the surrounding nature, transform it in the desired direction.

At the highest stage of its development, the central implicit system acquires another function: it becomes body mental activity, in which, on the basis of physiological processes, sensations, perceptions arise and thinking appears. The human brain is an organ that provides the opportunity social life, communication of people with each other, knowledge of the law of nature and society and their and cn use in public practice.

Let's give some idea of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.

The main form of activity of the nervous system is reflex. All reflexes are usually divided into unconditioned and conditioned.

Unconditioned reflexes are innate, genetically programmed body responses that are common to all animals and humans. The reflex arcs of these reflexes are formed in the process of prenatal development, and in some cases, in the process of postnatal development. For example, congenital sexual reflexes are finally formed in a person only by the time of puberty in adolescence... Unconditioned reflexes have conservative, slightly changing reflex arcs, passing mainly through the subcortical parts of the central nervous system. The participation of the cortex in the course of many unconditioned reflexes is optional.

Conditioned reflexes are individual, acquired reactions of higher animals and humans, developed as a result of learning (experience). Conditioned reflexes are always individually unique. Reflex arcs of conditioned reflexes are formed in the process of postnatal ontogenesis. They are characterized by high mobility, the ability to change under the influence of environmental factors. Reflex arcs of conditioned reflexes pass through the higher part of the brain - KGM.

The question of classifying unconditioned reflexes is still open, although the main types of these reactions are well known. Let us dwell on some especially important unconditioned human reflexes.

1. Food reflexes. For example, salivation when food enters oral cavity or the sucking reflex in a newborn baby.

2. Defensive reflexes. Reflexes that protect the body from various adverse effects, an example of which can be the reflex of withdrawing the hand with painful irritation of the finger.

3. Orientation reflexes. Any new unexpected stimulus draws upon itself the removal of a person.

4. Play reflexes. This type of unconditioned reflexes is widespread in various representatives the animal kingdom and also has an adaptive value. Example: puppies playing,. hunt for each other, sneak up and attack their “enemy”. Consequently, during the game, the animal creates models of possible life situations and carries out a kind of "preparation" for various life surprises.

Keeping their biological basis, children's play acquires new qualitative features - it becomes an active tool for understanding the world and, like any other human activity, acquires a social character. The game is the very first preparation for future work and creative activity.

The child's play activity appears from 3-5 months of postnatal development and underlies the development of his ideas about the structure of the body and the subsequent separation of himself from surrounding reality... At 7-8 months, play activity acquires an "imitative or teaching" character and contributes to the development of speech, improvement emotional sphere child and enrichment of his ideas about the surrounding reality. From the age of one and a half, the child's play becomes more and more complicated, the mother and other people close to the child are introduced into the game situations, and thus the foundations are created for the formation of interhuman, social relations.

In conclusion, it should be noted also sexual and parental unconditioned reflexes associated with the birth and feeding of offspring, reflexes that ensure the movement and balance of the body in space, and reflexes that maintain the homeostasis of the body.

Instincts. More complex, certainly reflex, activity are instincts, the biological nature of which remains unclear in its details. In a simplified form, instincts can be represented as a complex interconnected series of simple innate reflexes.

For the formation of a conditioned reflex, the following essential conditions are necessary:

The presence of a conditioned stimulus

The presence of unconditional reinforcement;

The conditioned stimulus should always somewhat precede the unconditioned reinforcement, that is, serve as a biologically significant signal, the conditioned stimulus in the strength of its effect should be weaker than the unconditioned stimulus; finally, for the formation of a conditioned reflex, a normal (active) functional state of the nervous system, primarily its leading part, the brain, is necessary. Any change can be a conditioned stimulus! Reward and punishment are powerful factors contributing to the formation of conditioned reflex activity. At the same time, we understand the words “encouragement” and “punishment” in a broader sense than simply “satisfying hunger” or “painful effect”. It is in this sense that these factors are widely used in the process of teaching and upbringing of a child, and every teacher and parent is well aware of their effective action. True, up to 3 years of age, for the development of useful reflexes in a child, “food reinforcement” is also of leading importance. However, then the leading role as a reinforcement in the development of useful conditioned reflexes acquires “verbal encouragement”. Experiments show that in children over 5 years of age, praise can be used to develop any beneficial reflex 100% of the time.

Thus, educational work, in its essence, is always associated with the development in children and adolescents of various conditioned reflex reactions or their complex interconnected systems.

The classification of conditioned reflexes is difficult due to their multiplicity. Distinguish exteroceptive conditioned reflexes formed during stimulation of exteroreceptors; interoceptive reflexes, formed when the receptors located in the internal organs are irritated; and proprioceptive, arising from irritation of muscle receptors.

Natural and artificial conditioned reflexes are distinguished. The former are formed by the action of natural unconditioned stimuli on the receptors, the latter by the action of indifferent stimuli. For example, the salivation of a child at the sight of his favorite sweets is a natural conditioned reflex, and the salivation of a hungry child at the sight of dinner dishes is an artificial reflex.

The interaction of positive and negative conditioned reflexes is essential for the adequate interaction of the organism with the external environment. Such important feature the child's behavior, as discipline, is associated precisely with the interaction of these reflexes. In physical education lessons, to suppress self-preservation reactions and feelings of fear, for example, when doing gymnastic exercises on the uneven bars, students' defensive negative conditioned reflexes are inhibited and positive motor reflexes are activated.

A special place is occupied by conditioned reflexes for a time, the formation of which is associated with stimuli that are regularly repeated at the same time, for example, with food intake. That is why, by the time of eating, the functional activity of the digestive organs increases, which has a biological meaning. Such a rhythmicity of physiological processes underlies the rational organization of the daily routine of preschool and school children and is a necessary factor in the highly productive activity of an adult. Reflexes for time, obviously, should be attributed to the group of so-called trace conditioned reflexes. These reflexes are developed if unconditioned reinforcement is given 10-20 s after the final action of the conditioned stimulus. In some cases, it is possible to develop trace reflexes even after a 1-2 minute pause.

Imitation reflexes, which are also a kind of conditioned reflexes, are of great importance in a child's life. To develop them, it is not necessary to take part in the experiment, it is enough to be its “spectator”.

A child is born with a set of unconditioned reflexes. reflex arcs of which begin to form at the 3rd month prenatal development. So, the first sucking and breathing movements appear in the fetus precisely at this stage of ontogenesis, and the active movement of the fetus is observed in the 4-5th month of intrauterine development. By the time of birth, the child develops the majority of congenital unconditioned reflexes, which provide him with the normal functioning of the vegetative sphere, his vegetative “comfort”.

The possibility of simple food conditioned reactions, despite the morphological and functional immaturity of the brain, arises already on the first or second day, and by the end of the first month of development, conditioned reflexes from the motor analyzer and the vestibular apparatus are formed: motor and temporary. All these reflexes are very slowly formed, they are extremely gentle and easily inhibited, which, in fact, is associated with the immaturity of cortical cells and a sharp predominance of excitation processes over inhibitory ones and their wide irradiation.

From the second month of life, auditory, visual and tactile reflexes are formed, and by the 5th month of development, the child develops all the main types of conditioned inhibition. Teaching a child has an important role in improving conditioned reflex activity. The earlier the training started, i.e. e. the development of conditioned reflexes, the faster their formation subsequently proceeds.

By the end of the first year of development, the child relatively well distinguishes the taste of food, odors, shape and color of food. metov, distinguishes between voices and faces. The movements are significantly improved, some children begin to walk. The child tries to pronounce individual words ("mom", "dad", “ grandfather "," aunt ", “ uncle ”, etc.), and he has conditioned reflexes to verbal stimuli. Consequently, already at the end of the first year, the development of the second signal system is in full swing and its Team work from the first.

Speech development is a difficult task. It requires coordination of the activity of the respiratory muscles, the muscles of the larynx, tongue, swelling and lips. Until this coordination has developed, the child pronounces many sounds and words incorrectly.

It is possible to facilitate the formation of speech by correct pronunciation of words and grammatical turns, so that the child constantly hears the patterns he needs. Adults, as a rule, when addressing a child, try to copy the sounds that the child utters, believing that in this way they can find with him “ mutual language”. This is a deep delusion. There is a huge distance between a child's understanding of words and the ability to pronounce them. Lack of required samples for imitations delays the formation of the child's speech.

The child begins to understand words very early, and therefore, for developed speech, “ talk ”with the child from the first days after his birth. When changing a baby's undershirt or diaper, shifting the baby or preparing him for feeding, it is advisable to do this not silently, but to address the child with the appropriate words, naming your actions.

The first signal system is the analysis and synthesis of direct, specific signals of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, coming from visual, auditory and other receptors of the body and components

The second signal system is (only in humans) the connection between verbal signals and speech, the perception of words-audible, spoken (aloud or silently) and visible (while reading).

In the second year of the child's development, all types of conditioned reflex activity are improved and the formation of the second signal system continues, the vocabulary apas increases significantly (250-300 words); direct stimuli or their complexes begin to cause verbal reactions. If, in a one-year-old child, conditioned reflexes to immediate stimuli are formed 8-12 ras faster than a word, then at two years the words acquire a signal value.

Of decisive importance in the formation of the child's speech and the entire second signaling system as a whole is the child's communication with adults, i.e. social environment and learning processes. This fact is further evidence of the decisive role of the environment in deployed and potential opportunities genotype. Children, deprived of a linguistic environment, communication with people, do not speak speech, moreover, their intellectual abilities remain at a primitive animal level. At the same time, the age from two to five is “critical” in mastering speech. There are known cases that children abducted by wolves in early childhood and those returned to human society after five years are able to learn to speak only to a limited extent, and those returned only after 10 years are not able to utter a single word.

The second and third years of life are distinguished by a lively orientation and research activities... “At the same time,” writes MM Koltsova, “the essence of the orientational reflex of a child of this age can be more correctly characterized not by the question“ what is it ?”, and the question “what can be done with this ?”. The child reaches for every object, touches it, feels it, pushes it, tries to lift it, etc. ”.

Thus, the described age of the child is characterized by the “objective” nature of thinking, that is, by the decisive importance of muscle sensations. This feature is largely associated with the morphological maturation of the brain, since many motor cortical zones and zones of musculocutaneous sensitivity reach a sufficiently high functional usefulness by the age of 2 years. The main factors stimulating the maturation of these cortical zones are muscle contractions and high physical activity child. The limitation of his mobility at this stage of ontogenesis significantly slows down his mental and physical development.

The period up to three years is also characterized by the extraordinary ease of formation of conditioned reflexes to a variety of stimuli, including the size, severity, distance and color of objects. Pavlov considered these types of conditioned reflexes to be prototypes of concepts developed without words (“a grouped reflection of the phenomena of the external world in the brain ”).

A notable feature of the two - three year old child is the ease of developing dynamic stereotypes. Interestingly, each new stereotype is easier to develop. M. M. Koltsova writes: “Now not only the daily routine becomes important for the child: hours of sleep, wakefulness, food and walks, but also the sequence in putting on or taking off clothes or the order of words in a familiar fairy tale and song - everything gains meaning. Obviously, with insufficiently strong and still mobile nervous processes, children need stereotypes that facilitate adaptation to the environment. "

Conditioned connections and dynamic stereotypes in children under three years of age are unusually strong, so their alteration is always an unpleasant event for a child. An important condition in educational work at this time is respectful attitude to all generated stereotypes.

The age from three to five years is characterized by the further development of speech and the improvement of nervous processes (their strength, mobility and balance increase), the processes of internal inhibition become dominant, but delayed inhibition and conditioned brake are developed with difficulty. Dynamic stereotypes are still easy to develop. Their number increases every day, but their alteration no longer causes disturbances in higher nervous activity, which is due to the above functional changes. The orienting reflex to extraneous stimuli is longer and more intense than in school-age children, which can be used effectively to inhibit harmful habits and skills in children.

Thus, in this period, truly inexhaustible opportunities open up before the creative initiative of the educator. Many outstanding teachers (D. A. Ushinsky, A. S. Makarenko) empirically considered the age from two to five to be especially responsible for the harmonious formation of all physical and mental capabilities of a person. Physiologically, this is based on the fact that conditional connections and dynamic stereotypes that arise at this time are distinguished by exceptional strength and are carried by a person through his entire life. Moreover, their constant manifestation is not necessary, they can be inhibited for a long time, but under certain conditions they are easily restored, suppressing the conditioned connections developed later.

By the age of five to seven, the role of the signaling system of words increases even more, and children begin to speak freely. "A word at this age already has the meaning of a 'signal of signals', that is, it receives a generalizing meaning close to that which it has for an adult."

This is due to the fact that only by the age of seven years of postnatal development does the material substrate of the second signaling system functionally mature. In this regard, it is especially important for educators to remember that the word can be effectively used to form conditional connections only by the age of seven. Abuse of a word before this age without sufficient connection with immediate stimuli is not only ineffective, but also causes functional harm to the child, forcing the child's brain to work in non-physiological conditions.

The few physiological data that exist indicate that primary school age (from 7 to 12 years old) is a period of relatively “quiet” development of higher nervous activity. The strength of the processes of inhibition and excitation, their mobility, balance and mutual induction, as well as a decrease in the strength of external inhibition, provide opportunities for the child's broad education. This is the transition "from reflex emotionality to the intellectualization of emotions"

However, only on the basis of teaching writing and reading does the word become an object of the child's consciousness, increasingly moving away from the images of objects and actions associated with it. A slight deterioration in the processes of higher nervous activity is observed only in the 1st grade in connection with the processes of adaptation to school. It is interesting to note that at primary school age, on the basis of the development of the second signaling system, the conditioned reflex activity of the child acquires a specific character characteristic only of humans. For example, during the development of autonomic and somato-motor conditioned reflexes in children, in a number of cases, a response is observed only to an unconditioned stimulus, and a conditioned one does not cause a reaction. So, if the subject was given a verbal instruction that after the call he will receive cranberry juice, then salivation begins only upon presentation of an unconditioned stimulus. Such cases of "non-formation" of the conditioned reflex appear the more often, the older the age of the subject, and among children of the same age - in the more disciplined and capable.

Of particular importance for the teacher and educator is the following age period - adolescence (from 11 - 12 to 15-17 years). This is the time of great endocrine transformations in the body of adolescents and the formation of secondary sexual characteristics in them, which in turn affects the properties of higher nervous activity. The equilibrium of nervous processes is disturbed, excitement gains great strength, the increase in the mobility of nervous processes slows down, the differentiation of conditioned stimuli significantly worsens. The activity of the cortex is weakened, and at the same time the second signaling system. Figuratively this period could be called “mountain gorge”.

All functional changes lead to mental imbalance in the adolescent (irascibility, “explosive” response even to minor irritations) and frequent conflicts with parents and teachers.

Only a correct healthy regimen, a calm environment, a solid program of classes, physical culture and sports, interesting extracurricular work, kindness and understanding on the part of adults are the main conditions for the transition period to pass without the development of functional disorders and related complications in the child's life.

Senior school age (15-18 years) coincides with the final morphological and functional maturation of all physiological systems of the human body. The role of cortical processes in the regulation of mental activity and physiological functions of the body increases significantly, cortical processes that ensure the functioning of the second signaling system are of prime importance.

Higher nervous activity provides a person with adequate adaptation to the action of environmental factors, therefore, certain environmental influences cause various changes in higher nervous activity. Depending on the strength of the external influence, changes in higher nervous activity can fluctuate within the normal range or go beyond them, becoming pathological.

Training sessions require intense work of the brain, and above all of its higher section - the cerebral cortex. Those cortical structures that are associated with the activity of the second signaling system and complex analytical and synthetic processes work especially intensively. Naturally, the load on the nerve elements should not exceed their functional capabilities, otherwise pathological changes in higher nervous activity are inevitable. If the training sessions at the school are organized according to hygienic requirements, then the changes in higher nervous activity do not go beyond the normal range. Usually at the end of the school day there is a weakening of excitatory and inhibitory processes, a violation of induction processes and the relationship between the first and second signaling systems. These changes are especially noticeable in younger schoolchildren.

Active rest after school is of great importance for maintaining the normal working capacity of students: outdoor games, sports, walks in the fresh air. Night sleep is of particular importance for maintaining a normal level of higher nervous activity. Insufficient duration of night sleep in schoolchildren leads to impaired analytic-synthetic activity of the brain, difficulty in the formation of conditioned reflex connections and an imbalance in the ratio between signaling systems. Compliance with the hygiene of night sleep normalizes the higher nervous activity, and all its disturbances observed as a result of inadequate sleep disappear.

Various chemicals, changing the functional state of the cortical cells and subcortical formations of the brain, significantly alter the higher nervous activity. Usually, the effect of chemicals on the higher nervous activity of an adult and a child is characterized by similar changes, but in children and adolescents, these changes are always more pronounced. Tea and coffee containing caffeine are far from harmless in this regard. In small doses, this substance enhances the cortical process of excitation, and in large doses, it causes its oppression and the development of transcendental inhibition. Large doses of caffeine also cause adverse changes in autonomic functions. Due to the fact that in children and adolescents, the processes of excitation somewhat prevail over the processes of inhibition, regardless of the type of their higher nervous activity, the use of strong tea and coffee is undesirable for them.

Nicotine has a significant effect on the higher nervous activity of children and adolescents. In small doses, it inhibits the inhibitory process and enhances excitation, and in large doses, it also inhibits the excitation processes. In humans, as a result of prolonged smoking, the normal relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition is disrupted and the performance of cortical cells is significantly reduced.

The use of various drugs, including alcohol, has a particularly destructive effect on the higher nervous activity of children and adolescents. Their effect on higher nervous activity has much in common, usually the first phase is characterized by a weakening of inhibitory processes, as a result of which excitation begins to predominate. This is characterized by an increase in mood and a short-term increase in performance. Then the excitatory process is gradually weakened and inhibitory develops, which often leads to the onset of heavy narcotic sleep.

In children, addiction to drugs and alcohol is usually not observed. In adolescents, however, it comes very quickly. Of all drug addiction, alcoholism is especially widespread in adolescents, which leads to a rapid degradation of the personality. The teenager becomes vicious, aggressive and rude. The transition from domestic drunkenness to alcoholism in adolescents occurs in about two years. Intoxication in adolescents is always characterized by more pronounced changes in higher nervous activity in comparison with adults: they very quickly experience inhibition of cortical processes. As a result, consciousness control over behavior is weakened, instincts begin to manifest sharply, which often brings adolescents to the dock. To organize an effective fight against alcoholism among adolescents, teachers and educators need to promote hygienic knowledge not only among adolescents, but also among parents, since, according to special studies, about 70% of juvenile delinquents “got acquainted” with alcohol at the age of 10-11 and in most cases it was the parents' fault.

There is evidence that children aged 8 to 12 years received drinks from their parents for the first time in 65% of cases, at the age of 12-14 years - in 40%, at the age of 15-16 years - in 32%.

Pathological changes in higher nervous activity should include long-term chronic disorders, which can be associated with both organic structural damage to nerve cells and functional disorders of their activity. Functional disorders of higher nervous activity are called neuroses. Long-term functional disorders of higher nervous activity can then turn into organic, structural ones.

A teacher or educator often meets in their work with various manifestations of neurotic reactions in children and adolescents and therefore must have an idea of the nature of neuroses and the peculiarities of their course in children of different ages. This knowledge will help them in time to notice the appearance of neurotic disorders of higher nervous activity in a child, and, after consulting a doctor, organize the optimal pedagogical correction of these disorders.

In modern pathology of higher nervous activity and psychiatry, three main forms of neuroses are distinguished:

neurasthenia,

obsessive-compulsive disorder

psychasthenia.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder - characterized by obsessive thoughts, fears, or drives. The cause of these neuroses is sometimes associated with overwork, illness and the peculiarities of higher nervous activity.

Thus, for the normal development of children and adolescents at each separate stage of ontogenesis, it is necessary to create optimal conditions... It is possible to solve this paramount problem only with close cooperation of specialists of different profiles: teachers, psychologists, physiologists, physicians and hygienists.

Age physiology / Yu. A. Ermalaev. - M .: Higher. shk. 1985.384 p., Ill.

Awakening thinking / F. Kliks. - M .: Progress. 1983.

Physiology of VND / L. G. Voronin. - M .: Higher. shk. 1979

Human physiology / under. ed. G.I. Kositsky. - F50 3rd ed., Rev. and additional, - M .: Medicine, 1985.544s., ill.

Human physiology / under. ed. N.V. Zimkina. - 3rd ed. - M .: Physical culture and sport. 1964.

At 3 years of age, a change in leading activity occurs, which determines the further development of the child. Subject activity is replaced by play and productive activity, which become leading at the age of 3-7 years.

In children over three years of age, further intensification of nervous processes, especially the process of inhibition, is observed, their mobility and balance significantly increase. This leads to a decrease in the degree of irradiation of excitement, makes it possible to implement more precise, subtle and coordinated movements, to develop more complex conditioned reactions.

During the period of development of conditioned reflexes, intersignal reactions may appear. This age feature associated with limiting the irradiation of excitation processes as a result of an increase in the inhibitory process. In the first 5-6 years of life, during the development of conditioned reflexes, reactions arise both to a complex of stimuli and to its individual components (although only the complex is reinforced). In the future, the specialization of the fields of the cerebral cortex increases, which becomes pronounced by the age of 6-7 years.

The research component in the child's behavior is intensified, analysis and synthesis are carried out by action: children strive to disassemble toys and other objects, but often try to “collect” broken toys.

Strengthening conditioned inhibition leads to the development of more and more subtle differentiations of both object and speech stimuli, which contributes to a more perfect interaction with subject environment, an increase in the rate of expansion of vocabulary, a clearer pronunciation of words.

Delayed inhibition even at this age is more difficult to develop than differentiation, therefore impatience is characteristic of children of this age. It is possible to train latency already from 3-5 years through games that require the manifestation of this type of inhibition (hide and seek, "freeze", etc.).

It is quite difficult to develop a conditional brake in children of the first childhood. The ability to restrain one's reactions under the action of inhibitory stimuli, a discipline that later develops into self-discipline, develops more easily if the child is presented with clear, consistent pedagogical requirements... There should not be many prohibitions, but they should be clear to the child and constant.

The ability to fade out conditioned reflexes also develops, especially from 4-5 years of age, which makes the child's GNI more plastic.

In this period, the second signaling system of reality as the basis of abstract-logical thinking continues to develop intensively. At the age of 3-5 years, attempts to comprehend speech arise, the child often asks questions in order to find out the semantic content of words, references to him, etc. The word is increasingly playing an integrating role, the ability to generalize and call in one word is not only homogeneous objects, similar in shape, but also heterogeneous objects that serve to perform similar actions, i.e. a third-order integrator word is formed. The child begins to understand words such as "toys", "flowers", "animals", that is, he generalizes objects for their intended purpose. Verbal reactions are caused not only by immediate stimuli, but also by words. Arises the new kind communication C-C ("verbal stimulus-verbal reaction").

At the beginning of the first childhood, the child is also characterized by the so-called "egocentric speech", addressed to himself and representing a commentary on the child's actions. Gradually, it is transformed into speech, which anticipates and directs activity, i.e. in a plan of conduct, expressed aloud. Then this speech turns into an internal one, which is the basis of human thinking proper.

Thus, by the age of 6-7 years, speech gradually turns not only into a means of communication, but also into a means of planning and regulating the child's activity, that is, along with "thinking in action", concrete-figurative thinking, verbal thinking also develops. The development of the second signaling system reaches the level at which the child tries to establish causal relationships between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, to predict the development of events. By the 4th year, speech chains are consolidated, the process of generalization and distraction develops, more complex concepts... So, the word "thing" he refers to toys, and dishes, and furniture, etc. we can say that the word acquires the meaning of an integrator word of the IV order.

The nature of the interaction of the first and second signaling systems of reality changes: if at 3-4 years old the first signaling system prevails and has an inhibitory effect on the second, then at 5-7 years, on the contrary, the second signaling system has an overwhelming effect on the first. However, the first signaling system retains its significant influence.

This fact must be taken into account in teaching and educational work with children and remember that at this age, in order to consolidate useful skills and habits, speaking in physiological language, in order to develop useful stereotypes, one should not abuse the word. Words should be combined with the action of specific stimuli. For example, as a reward, verbal praise is a good idea to back up with a specific reward.

The development of the second signaling system of reality is one of the most important indicators of a child's readiness to learn at school.

Many authors draw direct analogies between the development of drawing and speech and see drawing as a special kind of speech. So, the stage of the word-integrator of the I-II order corresponds to the manipulative form of the visual activity, the stage of the appearance of the word-integrator of the III order - the symbolic form, and after the formation of the word-concepts, the realistic form of the visual activity appears. This allows the child's drawing to be used to assess the level of development of his second signaling system. However, for a correct understanding of the drawing, it is necessary to study not in isolation one or another of its sides - line, space, color, but only in aggregate.

Drawing is a graphic speech arising from verbal speech. Graphic speech in form approaches written speech, but, unlike written speech, it is also symbolism of the first degree (written speech is symbolism of the second degree).

To a large extent, this connection is due to the development of the visual and motor centers of written speech, localized, respectively, in the occipital and frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Speaking is essential to different sides mental development child. Speech is gradually becoming the most important means of transferring social experience to a child, of controlling his activities by adults. Rebuilt under the influence of speech mental processes child. The development of speech is associated with the formation of thinking and consciousness of a person, higher mental functions that determine the socialization of a person. However, the process of mastering speech, in turn, depends on the development of the child's activity, on his perception and thinking.

The increased mobility of nervous processes leads to the fact that in the first childhood, the rate of development of dynamic stereotypes sharply increases. At the same time, up to 4-5 years, when the ability to fade out sharply increases, the developed stereotypes are very strong and inactive. It is difficult to “retrain” a child if he has learned to hold a pencil incorrectly, to sit at a table incorrectly. Forced breaking of stereotypes leads to a decrease in the readiness of the brain for subsequent activity, it "knocks the body out of its usual rut." This can cause many negative phenomena, both somatic and mental. "Retraining", a change of scenery in a number of cases becomes the cause of neuroses. That is why the correctness and consistency of methods of education and training is a necessary condition for a healthy and harmonious development a child from the first years of life. Only after 5 years does it become possible to easy rework stereotypes.

In connection with the development of the child's socialization, the expansion of his circle of communication, among the dynamic stereotypes of this age, stereotypes play an important role social behavior, aesthetic and ethical stereotypes are formed. In the development of these stereotypes, there is still great importance has an imitative reflex, which is why it is so important that the child constantly sees examples of socially acceptable, adequate behavior of adults. The emerging stereotypes of behavior are fixed in role-playing games children. By participating in these games, parents and teachers get the opportunity to correct the child's behavior, to guide him in the right direction.

In the process of development, the child has to deal with a huge number of factors that can disrupt the maturation of the brain. The greatest destructive force is possessed by hypoxia, which is of particular danger in premature infants, always with long-term consequences. In the formation of the so-called "difficult child", the role of micro-strokes is great, after which specific difficulties in learning are revealed in the future. Brain damage that occurs in the pre- and postnatal periods usually does not appear until the beginning of schooling, but subsequently create specific difficulties in the assimilation of information and behavioral deviations. A number of researchers have established a close relationship between the level of intelligence and the social well-being of a child; cognitive function and emotional stability are particularly affected.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neural tube laying

Antenatal period

For 2-3 months. before birth, the fetus, responding with distinct movements to a sudden sound stimulus, with the repetition of the sound, gradually reduces the

Neonatal period

Neonatal period

Infant age

12 months

Cognition

2nd year

2nd year

2-3 years

3rd year

3rd year

3-5 years

5-7 years

5-7 years

5-7 years

5-7 years

Junior school age

Junior school age

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Teenage years

Dominant

Features of the higher nervous activity of children