In his novel "Emile, or education", Rousseau outlined the theory of the education of the child. In the book, he described the features of the formation of the physical, moral and mental education of the child at different stages of his development.

The author sets out his ideal in the upbringing of the younger generation. He believed that a child should not be forced to do anything, beaten, scolded and forced to read books, he himself will be able to master what he needs. It is necessary to give the child a choice, he himself will show a desire to learn what he really likes. He also argued that religion is only a support for the morality of mankind. He rejected the existence of God and the miracles described in the Bible.

Rousseau talks about the principles of education, using the example of Emil, whom he takes care of. From birth to maturity.

The author divides the story into four parts, each part is devoted to a certain period of the child's growing up. Rousseau's goal is not to make a lawyer, engineer or astronaut out of a child, the main thing is to teach him how to live, so that, first of all, the child grows up as a person.

He believes that it would be right to give books to a child in adolescence and he should start with the book "Robinson Crusoe", since it is there that physical labor is described. Giving the child more freedom is another parenting technique. If a child is guilty of something, there is no need to read morality to him or punish him, he should receive a lesson based on personal experience. For example, a child broke a window, the punishment is cold in the room, the child gets dirty on the street, the punishment is dirty clothes.

The author publishes another book on the separate upbringing of girls, because a girl should grow up to be an exemplary wife and a good mother. First of all, it is necessary to remember that the child must choose what he wants to study, strive for something and find his interest, and parents should only provide the means for his education.

You can use this text for a reader's diary

Rousseau Jean-Jacques. All works

• Confession
• Emil, or On Education
• Julia, or New Eloise

Emil, or On Education. Picture for the story

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MOSCOW PEDAGOGICAL STATE
UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY

Essay on the history of pedagogy on the topic:

« Analysis of pedagogical views
Jean Jacques Rousseau
in the work
"Emil or about Education"

students of 302-F group

Chernova Galina Vladimirovna

Moscow - 1998

I . Introduction.

I would like to start my essay on the pedagogical views of J.J. Rousseau with a brief excursion into history, because I consider important the influence of the environment and the historical situation on the formation of pedagogical views.

The capitalist system was taking shape in France long before the bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. In the country, mainly agrarian, in the second half of the 18th century, capitalist manufacture was widely spread. But feudal relations strongly hindered the development of capitalism. The popular movement directed against the feudal system had a great influence on the entire course of the political life of the 18th century. During this period, the struggle of writers and scientists, exponents of bourgeois ideology, against the feudal order is revived. In their writings, they smashed the feudal worldview, smashed the official religions (some enlighteners were atheists) long before the onset of the revolution. In the 50-80s of the 18th century, in the pre-revolutionary years, their performances acquired a particularly acute character.

The French enlighteners sharply criticized religion as a stronghold of feudalism, the feudal system and feudal ideology. Based on the positions of Locke, they defended the contractual theory of the origin of the state (Rousseau, Diderot, etc.) and argued that in his “state of nature” a person always had a “natural right” to freedom, equality and brotherhood. They were waiting for the advent of a new era, the kingdom of reason.

An outstanding place among the French Enlightenment was occupied by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the materialist philosophers.

II . Short biography.

Rousseau was born in 1712 in Geneva, in the family of an artisan watchmaker, and did not receive a systematic education, as a child he was apprenticed to an engraver, but fled, unable to withstand the beatings and cold. Thus begins his wandering life. Many times he crossed France and Switzerland, he will try many professions. He returns to Paris as an established person, gets acquainted with the best representatives of the new bourgeois intelligentsia, publicists and philosophers.

III . Creativity J.J. Rousseau

In 1749 he participated in an essay competition on the topic: "Has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to the improvement or deterioration of morals?"

Then in 1754 he wrote his second work "About the origin inequality between people, then - in 1762 - "Social Contract". In these works, Rousseau contrasts a civilized society with a society in the "state of nature", he castigates tyranny, the oppression of the exploiters, and, developing the contractual theory of Locke, proves that power that does not meet the interests of the people is not legitimate; it violated the original treaty under which people voluntarily transferred some of their rights to elected authorities who were supposed to serve the people. Hence the conclusion follows: if the authorities do not meet the requirements, then they should be replaced.

IV . Pedagogical works of J.J. Rousseau

One of the first pedagogical works - A Treatise on the Education of Monsieur de Sainte-Marie. Pedagogical themes are reflected in the last essay - "Walks of a Lonely Dreamer", - which Jean-Jacques Rousseau did not have time to finish. Novel "Julia or New Eloise" talks about family education. Works "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences", "Remarks on the Refutation of Stanislav", "Preface to Narcissus", "Letters on Morals", "About morals" demonstrate Rousseau's views on the moral foundations of education. AT "Confessions" , "walking lonely dreamer, "Emile" he portrays the characteristics of childhood.

V .Analysis of the novel "Emil or about Education"

The treatise novel “Emil or on Education” is the main pedagogical work of Rousseau, entirely devoted to the problems of human education. To express his pedagogical ideas, Rousseau created a situation where the educator begins to educate a child left an orphan from infancy and takes on the rights and obligations of parents. And Emil is entirely the fruit of his many efforts as an educator.

Rousseau plans three types of education and three types teachers :Nature, People and Objects . All of them participate in the upbringing of a person: nature internally develops our inclinations and organs, people help to use this development, objects act on us and give us experience. nature education does not depend on us, but acts independently. subject education partly depends on us.

Upbringing - a great thing, and it can create a free and happy person. The natural man - Rousseau's ideal - is harmonious and whole, the qualities of a human citizen, a patriot of his Motherland are highly developed in him. He is absolutely free from selfishness. As an example of such a person, Rousseau cites the Lacedaemonian Pedaret, who wished to become a member of the council of three hundred, and when he was refused this, he was glad that there were three hundred people better than him in Sparta.

The role of the educator for Rousseau is to educate children and give them one single trade - life. According to Emil's teacher, neither a judicial officer, nor a military man, nor a priest will come out of his hands - first of all, it will be a person who can be both.

Each age period should correspond to special forms of education and training.. Education should be of a labor nature and contribute to the maximum development of independence and initiative of students. Intellectual education should be preceded and accompanied by the exercise of the physical forces and senses of the pupils. In his novel Rousseau gives periodization dividing a child's life into four stages :

1 - from birth to two years. This is the period of physical education. Child's caregivers mother and father.

2nd period - children's age from 2 to 12 years;

3 period - adolescence from 12 to 15 years;

4 period - adolescence from 15 to 18 years old.

AT first book Jean-Jacques Rousseau talks about the first period of a child's life in his novel Emile or on Education. Rousseau says: "Plants are given form by cultivation, and men by education." “We are born deprived of everything - we need help; we are born meaningless - we need reason. Everything that we do not have at birth and without which we cannot do when we become adults, is given to us by education. Rousseau believes that it is impossible to rely only on feelings in education, otherwise a person will not know what he wants.

“To be anything, to be yourself and always one, you need to act as you say, you need to be always ready for the decision that you have to make, you need to take boldly and follow it constantly.”

This chapter also says that the child should not be shackled after birth with diapers, the child should lie freely. Rousseau urges people: "Let the body develop freely, do not interfere with nature." He believes that the child needs to be hardened, the child does not need any doctors and medicines. The biggest enemy is hygiene. At this age, it is necessary to accustom to darkness, loneliness, unfamiliar objects, but the child should not have any regimen, only natural needs. “The too precise distribution of food and sleep makes both necessary after each interval of time: soon desire begins to appear not from need, but from habit, or, rather, habit begins a new need for natural need - this is what should be prevented.” It is not necessary, according to Rousseau, forcing, stimulating speech.

So, at this age, the emphasis is on the physical development of children, and the main educators are mother and father.

This society is vicious, and Rousseau sees its change in the re-education of children, in the fact that parents should take care of their children. “But let only mothers deign to feed their children, morals will be transformed by themselves, natural feelings will wake up in all hearts, the state will again be populated; this first step - this one step will put everything together again. The charm of home life is the best antidote to bad morals. The fuss of children, which is considered tiresome, becomes pleasant; it makes father and mother more necessary and dear to each other; it binds the marital bond between them more strongly. When the family is lively and animated, household chores are the wife's dearest occupation and the husband's sweetest entertainment. Thus, the correction of this one defect will soon result in a general reform, and nature will soon come into her own again. Let only women become mothers again - and men will soon become fathers and husbands again.

But right there, Rousseau shows that if a woman wants to fulfill her maternal duties and feed the child herself, then society will be set against her and her husband.

In the same chapter, the author writes that fathers must fulfill three tasks, he must give: "humanity - a person, society - public people, the state - state citizens." If for some reason one of the tasks is not performed, then the man does not have the right to be a father.

The educator of the child must be a young man in order to become a mentor and friend for the child. The child has a caregiver from birth.

This chapter talks about the fact that the author takes up the education of Emil - this is an ideal child, as well as the author - an ideal mentor. Emil is an orphan, so all the rights and obligations are performed by the mentor. Rousseau gives such a starting point in order to show the operation of his pedagogical system.

Socio-political and philosophical views of Rousseau. Power and wealth created inequality, Rousseau argued, and man therefore lost his freedom. Rousseau reasoned like a sensualist: there is nothing in our consciousness that would not be received through sensations, through the senses.
Natural and free education. Children should be brought up, according to Rousseau, naturally, in accordance with nature. This means that in education it is necessary to follow the nature of the child, take into account his age characteristics. He believed that education comes from three sources: from nature, from the surrounding people and from things. Education by nature, in his opinion, is carried out through the "internal" development of human abilities, the development of the senses; education by people is teaching a person to use the development of these abilities and organs; and finally, education from things is a person's own experience, acquired by him from the things that he encounters and which affect him. Correct education will be when all three factors act in concert, in one direction.
In direct connection with natural education, Rousseau also placed free education. He demanded to respect the personality of the child, to take into account his interests and requests. Rousseau attached great importance to the guiding role of the educator. The educator, he said, only leads his pupil to the solution of the problem, guides his interests in such a way that the child himself does not notice this, and has mainly an indirect effect. He organizes the whole environment, all the influences surrounding the child in such a way that they suggest certain solutions. He denied coercion as a method of education.
age periodization. Rousseau divided the life of his pupil into four periods. The first period - from birth to 2 years - is the time when the focus should be on the physical education of children. The second period - from 2 to 12 years, in his words, the period of "sleep of the mind", when the child still cannot reason and think logically, when it is necessary to develop mainly "external feelings", when the child's strength accumulates in order to find his way out already at an older age. The third period is from 12 to 15 years, during these years mental education is widely developed, the mental needs of the child are satisfied. The fourth period - "the period of storms and passions" - from 15 years to adulthood, when moral education is predominantly carried out.
In early childhood (up to two years), the basis of everything is physical education. If possible, the mother should feed the child herself. Rousseau dwells in detail on the physical education of Emil. He points out how to temper the child and strengthen his physical strength. From the age of two, a new period of education begins. Rousseau gives a whole series of instructions on how to develop feelings. It is still necessary to strengthen the health of the child, his physical development. It would be good for a child under 12 not to know books at all; but if he has learned to read, let Robinson Crusoe be his first and only book. Emil wants to garden and plant beans, but on the land of the gardener Robert, just in the place where, it turns out, Robert has already planted melons. From the encounter between Emil and Robert, the child learns how the idea of ​​property goes back naturally to the right of "first possession through labor." Rejecting punishment, Rousseau puts forward the method of "natural consequences". The freedom of a child can only be limited by things. A child, faced with nature, will undoubtedly understand that one must obey its laws. The same considerations should also be taken as the basis of relations with people. If a child breaks everything he touches, don't get angry, just try to remove from him everything that he can spoil. So he broke the chair he used, do not rush to give him a new one. By the age of twelve, Emil is physically strong, independent, able to quickly navigate and grasp the most important, he learned the world around him through his external senses. And he is fully prepared to enter the third period of his development, when mental and labor education is carried out. When choosing subjects for study, it is necessary to proceed from the interest of the child. Naturally, the child's interest is directed to what he sees, and therefore he is interested in geography, astronomy, and natural history. Rousseau puts Emil in the position of a researcher who discovers scientific truths, invents a compass, etc. Rousseau's didactics is based on the development of a child's initiative, the ability to observe, and quick wits. Emil is trained in a number of useful professions. First of all, the child learns carpentry, which Rousseau greatly appreciates in terms of education, and then gets acquainted with a number of other crafts. Emil lives the life of a craftsman, he is imbued with respect for the man of labor, labor itself and labor communication. Emile is now prepared for life, and in his sixteenth year Rousseau returns him to society. There comes the fourth period - the period of moral education, and it can be given only in society. The depraved city is not terrible now to Emil, who is sufficiently tempered from city temptations. Rousseau puts forward three tasks of moral education: this is the education of good feelings, good judgments and good will. Let a young man observe pictures of human suffering, need and grief, he will also see good examples; not moral reasoning, but real deeds bring up good feelings in him. The education of good judgments is carried out, according to Rousseau, by studying the biographies of great people, by studying history. Education of good will can be only through the performance of good deeds.
A young man should live an active life: move, engage in physical labor, be in the fresh air for a long time. The upbringing of a woman. Rousseau considers with great attention the question of which wife to choose for Emile. Emile's bride Sophie's upbringing should be the opposite of that of her fiancé. The appointment of a woman, in the understanding of Rousseau, is completely different from the appointment of a man. She must be brought up for the home. Adaptation to the opinions of others, the absence of independent judgments, submission to someone else's will - this is the destiny of a woman.

21. "Regulations on a unified labor school." "Basic principles of a unified labor school." Their characteristic.

UNIFIED LABOR SCHOOL - a school accessible to the entire population, giving all children of a certain age, regardless of the social and property status of their parents, general educational and labor knowledge, skills and abilities. With the concept of E. t. sh. inextricably linked are the continuity of the various levels of the school, i.e., the unhindered transition from one (lower) level of education to the next (higher), the unity of the goals of upbringing and education, as well as the main ped. principles on which the educational work of the school is built. At the heart of E. t. sh. There are two inextricably linked ideas: the idea of ​​unity and the idea of ​​labor training and education. The idea of ​​labor training arose in connection with the development of handicrafts and manufactory production. The regulation "On the unified labor school of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic" outlined the ways of building such a school. It established the socialist principles of building the system: the connection of school with life, the implementation of national and sexual equality, teaching in the native language, the continuity of various levels of education. Entered E. t. sh. with a nine-year term of study, divided into two stages: the first - for children from 8 to 13 years old (5-year course), the second - from 13 to 17 years old (4-year course). On the basis of this school, the broad development of prof. education for boys and girls from the age of 17.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

UNIFIED LABOR SCHOOL

· scope for creativity of pedagogical councils of schools;

· "sufficient scope for private initiative";

· "software minimum" as a proposal, not as a binding;

· "fixed attention on specially selected subjects" (starting from the seventh year of study);

· the principle of ease of learning;

· the principle of "correspondence of teaching to the natural inclinations of children";

· labor, physical and aesthetic education;

The principle of natural conformity: “An analysis by teachers of the inclinations and characteristics of the character of each student and perhaps a more complete adaptation to his personal needs of what the school gives him and what the school asks from him”;

· "concern for the underachievers is the first concern of the democratic school";

· the principle of collaborative learning.

The new school should be labor. The source of the aspirations of the school for work is the direct desire to acquaint the students with what they will most need in life, with agricultural and industrial labor in all its varieties.

The purpose of the labor school is a polytechnical education, giving children practical acquaintance with the methods of all the most important forms of labor, partly in a training workshop or on a school farm, partly in factories, factories, etc.

Play, walk, conversation provide material for collective and individual thought in the activities of children. Starting with the child himself and his surroundings, everything is the subject of questions and answers, stories, writings, images, imitations. The teacher systematizes and directs the inquisitiveness of the child and his thirst for movement in such a way that the richest results are obtained. All this is the main subject of teaching, like a children's encyclopedia, it now takes on the character of studying human culture in connection with nature.

At the same time, students are always encouraged to engage in free activities that are of particular interest to them: personal research, essays, abstracts, models, collections, etc.

By aesthetic education one should understand not the teaching of some simplified children's art, but the systematic development of the senses and creative abilities, which expands the opportunity to enjoy beauty and create it.

Gymnastics and sports should develop not only strength and dexterity, but also the ability for distinct collective actions, the spirit of mutual assistance, etc.

An extremely important principle of the renovated school will be the fullest possible individualization of education. By individualization one must understand the analysis by teachers of the inclinations and characteristics of the character of each student and, as far as possible, a more complete adaptation to his personal needs of what the school gives him and what the school asks from him. Concern for those who lag behind is the first concern of the democratic school, for backwardness in the overwhelming majority of cases is due not to a lack of natural abilities, but to worse domestic conditions.

Children should participate in all school life. To do this, they must enjoy the right of self-government and show constant active mutual assistance. Preparing to become citizens of the state, they should feel as soon as possible citizens of their school. The class or some other group of students must self-govern the whole mass. For this, as many positions as possible are established. These positions should not be long-term. Children should be on duty on them from one day to two weeks, the change should take place in turn or by lot.

22. Educational activities and pedagogical views of Robert Owen.

A more complete version

Pedagogical ideas and activities of R. Owen in the New Lanark period
Robert Owen (1771-1858) lived in England at the time of the Industrial Revolution.
Owen came to the conclusion that the character of a person, his personality is shaped by the environment and upbringing. Human nature, Owen believed, is good, he has all the data to be virtuous. And if the children are in proper conditions and their upbringing is organized correctly, it is possible to create new, intelligent people, and then, with their help, peacefully transform modern vicious social relations.
R. Owen's idea about the formation of a person's character by environment and upbringing was first formulated by him in the work “A New Look at Society, or Experiments on the Formation of Human Character (1813-1814). During his thirty-year life in New Lanark (until the end of 1829), R. Owen carried out a number of philanthropic activities there: he reduced the working day, which at that time lasted fourteen to sixteen hours, to ten and three-quarters of an hour, increased wages , and paid it during the crisis, when the factory had to be temporarily closed, built new housing for workers, organized their supply with everything they needed at low prices. Owen paid much attention to cultural and educational work among the adult population and public education of the younger generation.
During this period of his activity, Owen saw the goal of education in the formation in children from the earliest years of a “reasonable character” useful to society. For this, he believed, a system of educational institutions should be created, covering all age groups of the village. So, on January 1, 1816, the “New Institute for the Formation of Character” was opened in the center of New Lanark, which combined the institutions previously organized by Owen: “a school for small children (it consisted of a nursery for babies from one to three years old, a preschool institution for children aged 3 to 5 and playgrounds) and a primary school for children aged 5 to 10.

On the upbringing of young children
At school, the correct daily routine was observed, the children received healthy food, spent a significant part of the time in the fresh air, regularly did gymnastics, often to music. Very early, kids began to learn dancing and singing. All these activities contributed to the development of their dexterity, grace, good taste. Thus, physical education was closely combined in the “school for small children with aesthetic education.
Taking care of the mental development of children, during easy conversations they were introduced to the surrounding objects, their properties and practical purpose. R. Owen attached great importance to children's activities, the main type of which he considered games.
Owen considered natural kindness, unfailing patience, the ability to work with children without punishment as the main qualities that educators of young children should possess. R. Owen for the first time in history created educational institutions for young children of workers.
Schools for workers' children
He considered it necessary to equip children with specific knowledge that is accessible to their age and useful in later life. The curriculum of the elementary school in New Lanark included, in addition to the native language and arithmetic, a number of subjects that at that time were not studied at the public school, somehow. elements of geography, botany, mineralogy.
The traditional teaching of religion was replaced by morality lessons conducted by R. Owen himself. Dancing and singing continued in elementary school; military gymnastics was introduced for boys. All training was based on the widespread use of visualization: the school had a large number of different collections and other exhibits; the walls of the great hall were painted with images of animals and plants.
R. Owen believed that it was necessary not only to give children knowledge, but also to develop cognitive abilities. Therefore, he strove to apply active teaching methods in the school, contributing to the manifestation of the inquisitiveness of the child's mind and accustoming students to independent thinking.
The regular participation of children in labor activity also gave an undoubted educational effect. Girls were taught to sew, cut, knit, keep the house clean and tidy, they were sent to the public kitchen and dining room, where they had to learn how to cook. The boys mastered the simplest types of handicraft work, learned gardening.
So that all children who have reached the age of five could attend elementary school, R. Owen categorically forbade hiring them at the factory until they were ten years old. From the age of ten, teenagers already working at the factory could continue their studies in evening classes, and until the age of twelve they had a reduced working day.
Pedagogical activity and views of R. Owen during the period of organization of communist colonies
Significant changes that took place in R. Owen's worldview in the second period of his activity also affected his pedagogical views and activities. Owen believed that under communism, thanks to the development of technology and the use of scientific achievements in production, an abundance of all kinds of products would be created; the old division of labor, which turned people into living machines, will be done away with, and "the broad combination of the mental and physical powers of each worker" will be fully realized.
Owen sought to put his theoretical propositions into practice in the New Harmony colony. He managed to attract qualified teachers to the schools established there. The colony's schools formed a single system of three levels: a school for young children aged two to five, a day school for children from five to twelve, and a school for teenagers and adults. So, in “New Harmony” children from the age of two did not belong to the family, but to the community. The educators made sure that the kids from a very early age acquired the skills of social behavior and joined in the process of playing activities to the simplest types of domestic work. At the secondary school, students were given a general education with a bias in the natural sciences; it was completely non-religious. Mental education was combined with the daily work of children. The boys mastered turning, carpentry, carpentry, shoemaking and other crafts in the workshops, studied agricultural work in the fields, in the garden and in the kitchen garden; girls were mainly engaged in housekeeping: cutting, sewing, cooking, etc. Students of third-level schools took an active part in the general work of the colony, and in the evenings acquired theoretical knowledge, attended qualified lectures on chemistry, history and other sciences. They were required to undertake agricultural practice.

Pedagogy of natural and free education Zh.Zh. Rousseau

A special place among the French enlighteners of the 18th century, who had a significant impact on the development of pedagogical science, belongs to the philosopher J.-J. Rousseau. In the history of pedagogy, he is called the "Copernicus of Childhood" and the founder of the idea of ​​free education.

J.-J. Rousseau(1712-1778) - French politician, philosopher, educator, writer, teacher, who had a great influence on the development of philosophy, sociology, and pedagogy. J.-J. Rousseau is one of the ideologists of the French bourgeois revolution, the leading slogan of which was "Liberty, equality and fraternity!". In the famous sayings of Rousseau: “A man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains”, “Nature created a man happy and kind, but society distorts him and makes him unhappy”- the human right to freedom and equality is affirmed and at the same time the rejection of the social structure of the existing society is expressed.

Rousseau proceeded from the premise that the educator should in no case impose his will on the child. He should only contribute to his natural growth, create conditions for the development of nature, organize the educational environment in which the child himself can gain independence and freedom.

Rousseau's widely known novel "Julia, or New Eloise" is written in epistolary form. It was published in Amsterdam at the beginning of 1761. During the first forty years, the book went through over seventy editions. Not a single work of French literature of the 18th century had such success. .

The first edition of The New Eloise in Russian appeared during Rousseau's lifetime in 1769. In the third chapter of the novel, the general provisions on the upbringing of children are most clearly presented and examples of the method of natural consequences are presented.

Another socio-pedagogical treatise written in the form of a novel is Emil, or On Education. Although it was created at the request of a noble lady who turned to Rousseau for advice on raising her son, Rousseau's social and religious views were widely reflected in it.

"Emile" was published for the first time in 1768 in Paris. Translated into Russian under the title "Emil and Sophia, or well-bred lovers" - in 1779. The novel consists of four books: the first is devoted to the education of Emil from birth to two years, the second - from 2 to 12, the third - from 12 to 15, the fourth - from 15 to 18 years old and the fifth - the upbringing of Sophia, the future wife of Emil.

Rousseau's pedagogy is imbued with concern for helping each individual bear, above all, the great title of Man. “In the natural system, since people are all equal, their common title is to be a man; who is well brought up for his rank, he cannot be a bad performer in the same ranks that are associated with this. Let my pupil be appointed to carry a saber, serve the church, be a lawyer - it's all the same to me. Before the title of parents, nature calls him to human life. Living is the trade I want to teach him. Coming out of my hands, he will not - I agree in this - neither a judge, nor a soldier, nor a priest; he will be first of all. Human; everything that a person should be, he will be able to be, in case of need, as well as anyone else, and no matter how fate moves him from place to place, he will always be in his place.

Rousseau believed that only education can create a free and happy person.

Rousseau was the first in the history of pedagogical thought to consider upbringing as a help to the nature of the child, naturally developing in the process of mastering the world around him and freely self-determining in it.

Rousseau was one of the first to consider childhood as a valuable qualitative stage in human development: “A person has his own place in the general order of the universe, childhood also has its own place in the general order of human life in a person, you need to consider a person, in a child - a child.” Rousseau literally appeals to all mankind: “People, be humane! .. Love childhood, be attentive to its games and amusements, to its sweet instinct! .. Why do you want to take away from these innocent little ones the opportunity to use time, so short and so fast flowing away from them, this precious good, which they still do not know how to abuse?

“A child,” Rousseau wrote, “should be treated as befits its age.” No one before Rousseau cared so much about the age principle in pedagogy as he does. Rousseau created his own scale of stages of age development: from birth to 2 years; from 2 to 12 years; from 12 to 15 years; from 15 to 22; from 22 to 24.

Table 2. - Age periodization, leading ideas and content of education according to J.Zh. Rousseau.

Periods	Leading Ideas	Content of education
0-2-infancy	The idea of ​​freedom. No routine, no diapers, no habits. Do not indulge capriciousness. Do not force - let him talk and walk when he laughs	Physical education and development of the child. “Do not interfere with nature! Let your body develop freely!”
2-12 years old - children's age "Sleep of the mind"	The idea of ​​ownership of what is acquired by one's own labor. Method of natural consequences. The idea of ​​the development of the sense organs is the basis for the development of the mind; especially the development of vision and subtle, accurate hearing, touch	Physical education improves health. Cognition is limited to independent measurement, weighing, comparison; listening to music, playing, playing music. Inclusion in life situations that allow you to understand the ideas of ownership and discipline. There is no special literacy education.
12-15 years - adolescence	The idea of ​​mental education: - the basis of teaching - interest: - the practical value of knowledge and the search way to obtain it. The idea of ​​labor education: work is the duty of every citizen.	The criterion for choosing subjects is the interest of the child. Emil is passionate about geography, natural history, astronomy - he is a researcher. The living world is important in the learning process. Craft training: carpentry, blacksmithing, agriculture.
15-18 years old - youthful "Period of storms and passions"	The idea of ​​moral education: education of good feelings, judgments and will. Sex education. Acquaintance with religion in its "natural" version.	Stage 1 - the formation of a good feeling empirically. Stage 2 education of good judgments - knowledge of history, literature. Stage 3 - education of the will - the right actions. Return to the system of social relations.
from 18-20 years old	Knowledge of life, peoples, countries of people	Travels

For the first time in the history of pedagogical thought, Rousseau raised the question of taking into account gender in education. In a special chapter of the novel "Emil, or On Education" the author sets out his view on the education of a woman. "Following the laws of nature, a man and a woman should act in accordance, but should not do the same thing." “Both sexes,” notes Rousseau, “have the same abilities, but not equally: to develop masculine properties in a woman, neglecting her inherent qualities, means to act clearly to her detriment.”

In the treatise novel Emil, or On Education, Rousseau formulates rules of free and natural education:“Once we know the principle, we already clearly see the point where they leave the natural path; Let's see what we need to do to stay in it.

Children not only do not have an excess of strength, but they do not even have enough of it for everything that nature requires; it means that they must be allowed to use all the powers that she has endowed them with and which they do not know how to abuse. Here is the first rule.

They must be helped to make up for their lack of intelligence or strength in all that concerns physical needs. This is the second rule.

In helping them, one must limit oneself only to the real, without making any concessions to either whim or unreasonable desire; for they will not be tormented by whims if they are not given the opportunity to be born, since they do not flow from nature. This is the third rule.

It is necessary to carefully study the language of children and their signs in order to distinguish - since at this age they still do not know how to pretend - what in their desires comes directly from nature and what is generated by whims. This is the fourth rule.

The essence of these rules is to give children more true freedom and less power, to give them more to act for themselves and less to demand from others. Thus, having learned from an early age to limit their desires to the limits of their powers, they will feel little deprivation of what is not in their power.

Here, means, new foundation- and, moreover, it is very important - to give the body and limbs of children complete freedom, caring only to eliminate the danger of falling and to remove from their hands everything that can hurt them.

Education program

The purpose of education- to create a person.

Principles of education: free education, humane education, natural education, the principle of independence, the principle of activity, the principle of benefit.

Natural Education Theory

1. “All means from oneself” The pedagogical process is a process of free self-development.

2. Natural education is carried out in the bosom of nature.

3. Natural upbringing has an individual hermit character.

The process of learning is the process of free and independent assimilation of knowledge.

The source of knowledge is the sciences of nature.

The basis of learning is the student's personal experience, observation, experiment.

moral education

The main means are exercises in moral deeds, the discipline of natural consequences.

The process of moral education:

Education of good feelings;

Education of good views and judgments;

Education of good will and deeds.

Labor education is the most important means of mental and moral development of the child.

Arming the child with the skills of agricultural and handicraft work.

Key dates of life and activity

1712 - Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva.

1728-1742 - years of knowledge of life and self-education.

1742-1762 - the period of musical and literary creativity in Paris.

1762-1778 - exile, life in different cities of Europe, in France under a false name.

1778 - Jean-Jacques Rousseau dies.

Main works

1750 - "Discourses on the Sciences and Arts" (treatise).

1761 - "New Eloise" (novel).

1762 - "Emil, or On Education" (a novel-treatise).

THE WORK OF JEAN - JACQUES ROUSSAULT ON EDUCATION

Introduction

Chapter 1. Pedagogical ideas of J.-J. Rousseau

1.1 One of the largest representatives of the French Enlightenment

1.2 Life and pedagogical path of J.-J. Rousseau

Chapter 2

2.1 The essence of natural education from the point of view of J.-J. Rousseau

2.2 Education at different age periods of children's development

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

The idea of ​​free education occupies an important place in the history of pedagogical thought. For a long time, scientists involved in the theory and practice of education have tried to find a way to implement non-violent influence on the younger generation. There are many examples in history when the idea of ​​free education was taken as the basis for the life of children's institutions. Basically, such an experience gave a positive result, i.e. the activity and initiative of the pupils increased, interest in learning and the desire to work arose. But, unfortunately, the activities of these institutions, due to various circumstances due to political, economic and other factors, did not last long. Such institutions were closed, but this did not diminish the enthusiasm and self-righteousness of the adherents of the ideas of free education, who tried to put them into practice.

Historically, the idea of ​​free education developed in line with pedagogical humanism, which originated in the depths of ancient philosophy. Even Socrates formulated the key postulate of this idea: the sun is in every person. Subsequent epochs supplemented the idea of ​​free education in their own way. Thus, Renaissance humanism introduced an ideal model of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed person into pedagogical theory. Representatives of the Enlightenment formulated a mechanism for educating a harmoniously developed personality. Undoubtedly, the historical merit in creating such a mechanism belongs to the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who developed an entire educational system that largely predetermined the development of pedagogical science. In modern pedagogy, there is an opinion that since that time the phenomenon of free education has been counting down on its own.

At present, the idea of ​​free education is of particular importance. In modern conditions of the restructuring of public consciousness, the search and development of new approaches to education, the idea of ​​free education becomes relevant and promising.

Chapter 1. Pedagogical ideas of J.-J. Rousseau

1.1 One of the largest representatives of the French Enlightenment

“Not a single name of the 18th century was surrounded by such a halo of glory as the name of Rousseau. He was the most famous writer of France, Europe, the world. Everything that came from his pen was immediately published and republished, translated into all major languages, ”wrote the famous Russian historian A.Z. Manfred.

Rousseau lived in France in an era when the decline of royal power had already begun, although the people still lived in faith in a kind and just king. The general discontent of the artisans and the poor of the cities grew. Their crowds came out with menacing exclamations in the city squares. It was the time before the revolution.

Second half of the 18th century took place in the struggle against absolutism. The masses of the people, the parliaments of the cities, part of the aristocracy are demanding the restriction of royal power.

School business in the 18th and even at the beginning of the 19th century in France retained the features of the Middle Ages. In European countries, schools were miserable and far from their purpose. Schools for the people were usually placed at the home of a teacher or in the workshop of an artisan who combined teaching and craft. The teachers were a village watchman, a bricklayer, a turner, a shoemaker, who needed additional earnings. When choosing a teacher from such candidates, preference was given to the one who had a suitable room for the school. Such teachers did not need special knowledge, since the teaching was limited to the acquisition by the student of the skills of reading and memorizing the texts of the catechism.

All this caused sharp criticism from public figures of the state of enlightenment. They were aware of the special role of education in the fate of the whole society.

The whole 18th century passed in Europe under the sign of the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment is a broad ideological trend that originated in France, reflecting the interests of the broad masses. Enlightenment figures considered education as an instrument for improving society.

The largest representatives of the French Enlightenment: Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Helvetius, Diderot. Enlighteners fought for the establishment of a "kingdom of reason" based on "natural equality", for political freedom. A large place in achieving these goals was assigned to the dissemination of knowledge. They dreamed of creating an ideal society in which there would be no vices, oppression and violence, they sharply criticized the existing form of government, the church, and morality. This criticism turned the Enlighteners into the ideologists of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century.

Rousseau was the brightest and most brilliant writer and publicist in the remarkable constellation of enlighteners. This individualist, who shunned people, became after his death a teacher of the insurgent masses, their ideologist. The thoughts and precepts of Rousseau were taken into service by both the revolutionary leaders and their opponents.

1.2 Life and pedagogical path of J.-J. Rousseau

An outstanding representative of the Enlightenment, philosopher and writer, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was one of the greatest educators of all times and peoples. Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in 1712 in Geneva (Switzerland) into a French family. His ancestors were peasants and artisans, and his father was a watchmaker. He lost his mother early, and since. father did little with him, then Jean-Jacques was left to his own devices. Having a lot of free time, he became interested in reading, "absorbing" book after book.

In his youth, he tried many professions: engraver, music copyist, secretary, home teacher. Rousseau did not receive a systematic education, but passionately strove for self-improvement, and this helped him become one of the most enlightened people of his era. In 1741 J.-J. Rousseau first comes to Paris after wandering along the roads of Italy, France, Switzerland. In the French capital J.-J. Rousseau acquires friends - the authors of the famous Encyclopedia, where the main ideas of the Enlightenment were formulated.

Rousseau did not belong to the “career people” at all, he did not look for an easy “way up”, but, on the contrary, rejected it. In the high society of Paris, Rousseau was a huge success, everyone was looking for acquaintances with him. But he didn't need fame. “I was sick of the smoke of literary fame,” he said at the end of his life.

The ten-year school of wandering determined a lot in his fate. He knew life not from books, he knew real life. In various states, Rousseau saw low huts rooted into the ground, where he often found shelter, exhausted peasants, stunted crops, poverty and wretchedness, but also saw magnificent palaces of noble nobles, which he bypassed.

Peasant need, national disasters, class inequality, i.e. the very life he saw became the first source of his social and political ideas.

An important role in his life was played by a meeting with an educated, free-thinking abbess of the monastery in Annecy. She tried to convert Rousseau to Catholicism, but the attempt was unsuccessful. He remained indifferent to religion. Then, feeling his talent, she insisted on studying at a music school, here he achieved great success and began to compose music himself.

For 10 years, he comprehended everything that he lacked, was engaged in self-education. It was a systematic education, as a result of which Rousseau struck his interlocutors with erudition. He studied astronomy, chemistry, botany, physics, even conducted experiments, became interested in philosophy, but his favorite subjects were history and geography. So, gradually Jean-Jacques Rousseau turned into one of the most well-read and educated people of his time, formed as an original and deep thinker. At the same time, he retained the simplicity and expressiveness of words, clarity in the expression of thought. Self-education is the second university of J.J. Rousseau, the first was life itself.

Experience as a home teacher in the late 30s. Rousseau served as the basis for writing the treatise The Education Project de Sainte-Marie, where he outlined his understanding of the tasks and content of education.

In 1742, Rousseau appears in Paris, where, visiting fashionable salons, he gradually realizes how fair his guesses were: he saw lies and hypocrisy, secret and cold calculation, ruthlessness towards his competitors in salon visitors. The aversion to wealth grew and became more acute. The experience of communicating with the elite of the Parisian world led him to a critical assessment of contemporary society. Thus, he approached those ideas about the origin of inequality, which later brought him great fame.

The small inheritance that Rousseau left after his father's death allowed him to live without thinking about earning. And he decides to devote himself to music, especially since in Paris, thanks to his musical and literary works, he gained a reputation as a musician and gifted composer.

In his busy and difficult life, Rousseau finds an outlet in the face of a young seamstress Teresa Levasseur, who became his girlfriend, and then his wife for life. “Her mind remained the same as nature created it; education, culture did not stick to her mind, ”he writes in his Confession. But her meekness, defenselessness, gullibility conquered him and made him happy. Apparently, with this simple girl, he felt some kind of relationship.

Among close friends of Rousseau was Danny Diderot, whose fate was somewhat similar to his own.

If Diderot and Helvetius considered education, the influence of society as a boon for a person, then Jean Jacques held the opposite point of view, arguing that society spoils a person who is naturally kind and honest, instilling in him negative qualities and habits. Diderot and his friends published the Encyclopedia of Sciences and Crafts. Rousseau also became one of the encyclopedists who entered into battle with the old world. The volumes of the "Encyclopedia" expressed a new ideology, opposed to the existing order in society, its morals and dogmas. It played an enormous role in the ideological preparation of the French Revolution. Rousseau, anticipating the revolution, wrote that it would destroy evil, but at the same time it should be feared in the same way as the existence of evil.

At the end of the 40s. Rousseau had already arrived at the ideas expressed in his treatise Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750), which brought him wide fame. One day, on his way to the place of detention of Diderot near Paris and leafing through a magazine, he read an announcement from the Dijon Academy about a competition on the topic: "Did the revival of sciences and arts contribute to the purification of morals?" On the same day he began to write a treatise - this topic interested him so much. The Dijon Academy awarded Rousseau's composition the first prize. The published treatise aroused heated controversy. Articles about Rousseau's work were later published in two thick volumes.

The author of the treatise answers the negative question about the positive influence of the sciences and arts on the mores of society. He writes that humanity has suffered irreparable damage by moving away from its "natural state". But at the same time, he did not at all call for the destruction of civilization - "such a conclusion is quite in the spirit of my opponents." He sees the progress of mankind in education, which will take place in harmony with the natural essence of the child.

Another work of Rousseau, the most beloved, is the novel The New Eloise, written in 1758 and published in 1761. It was an extraordinary success, for 40 years it was published 70 times, including in Russian. Not a single work of art of the 18th century. was not as popular. This is a sentimental story about medieval lovers who are forced to live apart, since love is powerless in the face of social prejudices: the hero of the novel does not give birth enough compared to his beloved - the daughter of a baron. The novel is written in the form of letters from the characters to each other.

In their letters, the heroes discuss religious, aesthetic, pedagogical topics. The New Eloise proved to be the forerunner of the pedagogical novel.

In 1753, Rousseau began work on the novel Emile, or on Education. The novel was published in 1762 in Paris and Amsterdam. The publication of the novel caused a whole storm of anger and fury of the authorities and the church. Immediately upon publication, the novel was banned by the church, 10 days after publication, the entire circulation in Paris was confiscated and burned publicly.

Legal proceedings were brought against the author by the Church. He was forced to hide and flee to a small village near Bern (Switzerland), but soon the authorities of Geneva and Bern refused him asylum, then he found shelter in a small town. “... They can take my life, but not my freedom,” Rousseau wrote.

The Amsterdam edition was also burned, and then the books were "executed" in Geneva. "Emil" was included in the list of banned books, and Rousseau was anathematized by the pope.

The Russian Empress Catherine II, after reading "Emil", expressed her opinion: "... I do not like Emil's education ..." - and the import of the novel into Russia was prohibited.

Did not understand the reasoning of Rousseau and some of his recent friends, such as Helvetius, Voltaire.

But many outstanding thinkers of Europe welcomed Rousseau, among them the famous philosophers Kant, Hume.

It is indisputable that thanks to "Emil" in Europe there was a huge interest in the problem of education, in France the number of pedagogical works increased sharply.

And in 1767 he was again in France, but he lives under a false name. In the last years of his life, he wrote several more works: "Confession" - his biography and philosophical understanding of life, "Walks of a lonely dreamer", "Discourse on the management of Poland", where he again returns to questions of education. Jean Jacques Rousseau died in 1778.

Chapter 2 The work "Emil or about Education"

2.1 The essence of natural education from the point of view of J.-J. Rousseau

Rousseau outlined his views on the mental nature of the child in the well-known work Emil or On Education. It is interesting that, considered in the XVIII - XIX centuries. one of the most significant theorists of education, Rousseau did not like children and never even raised his own offspring, preferring to give them immediately after birth to an orphanage. Nevertheless, his merit is that he brought into a complete picture everything that was known by that time about the nature of the child, about his development.

The treatise novel "Emil, or On Education" is the main pedagogical work of Rousseau, it is entirely devoted to the presentation of his views on education; in it, rational education is understood by Rousseau as a way of social reorganization. There are two characters in the novel - Emil (from birth to 25 years old) and a teacher who has spent all these years with him, acting as parents. Emil is brought up far from a society that corrupts people, outside the social environment, in the bosom of nature.

What is "education"? In modern Rousseau society, there was an understanding of education as the remaking of a child by adults according to an established pattern with the help of literature, religion, etc. and turning him, through training, into the kind of person who is needed for the appropriate "place" in society. Rousseau contrasted such education with a personality brought up by the means of nature, with its own natural interests, guided in life by its own natural abilities. If the dominant upbringing sought to make a person well-trained and comprehended all the subtleties of etiquette, then for Rousseau an educated person is a deeply human person who has achieved the development of his abilities and talents.

The basis of Rousseau's pedagogical views is the theory of natural education, which is closely connected with his social views, with his doctrine of natural law. Rousseau argued that a person is born perfect, but modern social conditions, the existing upbringing disfigure the nature of the child. Education will contribute to its development only if it acquires a natural, nature-like character.

According to J.-J. Rousseau, nature, people and things participate in education. “The internal development of our abilities and our organs is education received from nature,” he wrote, “learning how to use this development is education on the part of people, and the acquisition of our own experience with objects that give us perceptions is education on the part of of things". Education fulfills its role when all three factors that determine it act in concert.

More J.-J. Rousseau is trying to prove that education on the part of nature does not depend on people at all, education on the part of things depends only to a certain extent, and only education on the part of people is determined by people themselves. From these considerations, Rousseau concludes that, since people have no power over nature, the last two factors (i.e. education from the side of things and from the side of people) should be subordinated to the first factor, i.e. nature. The success of education depends, first of all, on the coordination of all three factors.

In accordance with these factors, the essence of education is understood by J.-J. Rousseau is different.

If we are talking about education by nature, then here Rousseau, as indicated above, identifies education with development (education is the internal development of our abilities and our organs).

When he speaks of education through things, he now understands by education the assistance to the child in acquiring his own experience.

And, finally, when education is considered by people, then in this case education is understood as the leadership of children.

We see that J.-J. Rousseau pursues a certain and quite pronounced trend: education goes from development, which is independent of the educator (since it is an internal, spontaneous, spontaneous process), to a more active process of assistance (in gaining experience) and to even more active leadership.

Thus, the essence of education can be represented by the following scheme: self-development - assistance - leadership.

J.-J. Rousseau thus posed the extremely important problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in the development of the child, however, having completely subordinated the social to the biological, he could not solve this problem scientifically.

Education is always and in all cases a social function, and the development of the child, the formation of his personality is determined not by the "nature" of the child, but by society, the social conditions of life and activity. However, J.-J. Rousseau, despite the erroneous concept of the priority of self-development over education proper, with his ideas dealt a crushing blow to the entire system of aristocratic and religious education, where they did not take into account the "nature" of the child, i.e. with the laws of his physical and mental development, with his true needs and aspirations. The courageous and consistent statement of the great French thinker in defense of nature and the rights of the child, his angry protest against the suppression and enslavement of the Personality, his raising the question of his own laws of human development - an outstanding contribution of J.-J. Rousseau in the development of pedagogical, psychological and philosophical thought.

Understanding J.-J. Rousseau's natural, nature-conforming upbringing differs from the interpretation of it by Ya.A. Comenius. Rousseau did not speak about external imitation of nature, but about the need to follow the natural course of development of the inner nature of the child himself, internal harmony and naturalness in human development. He demanded a thorough study of the child, a good knowledge of his age and individual characteristics.

Recognizing that human nature is perfect, Rousseau idealized the nature of the child and considered it necessary to take care of creating conditions in which all the inclinations inherent in him from birth could develop unhindered. The educator should not impose on the child his views and beliefs, moral ready-made rules, but should provide him with the opportunity to grow and develop freely, in accordance with his nature, and, if possible, eliminate everything that could interfere with this. Natural education is free education.

Rousseau believed that the educator should act in such a way that the children were convinced by the force of necessity, the logic of the natural course of things, that is, the method of “natural consequences” should be widely applied, the essence of which is that the child himself feels the result of his wrong actions, inevitably arising because of this, harmful consequences for him. In fact, he made the child dependent both on things and on a mentor who was constantly with him. For the pupil, only the appearance of freedom was preserved, since he always had to act in accordance with the desire of the educator “Without a doubt,” wrote J.-J. Rousseau, - he should only want what you want to make him do. Thus, it is the educator, influencing his pupil in an indirect way, that encourages him to a versatile manifestation of activity and amateur performance.

The educator, to whom Rousseau assigned a large role in the formation of a new person, must clearly understand the goal facing him. He must give the pupil not a class, not a professional, but a general human education. This requirement at the time of J.-J. Rousseau was undeniably progressive.

Rousseau, as a philosopher, psychologist, and as a teacher, perfectly understood that pedagogical leadership is impossible without limiting the freedom of the child, that leadership and freedom are a contradiction, the path to resolving which is not so easy to find.

Authoritarianism, not recognizing any rights and any freedom for the child, achieved its goals through coercion and violence, creating, according to Rousseau's definition, artificial, i.e. in other words, a corrupt person.

J.-J. Rousseau, trying to solve this problem, approaches it from several angles, each time substantiating his approach differently (both philosophically, psychologically, and pedagogically).

First of all, he is aware of the fact that "even in the state of nature, children enjoy only imperfect freedom." That "kingdom of freedom" that Rousseau proclaimed at the beginning of the novel and to which he intends to lead his pupil, soon in fact turns out in many cases to be only an illusion, a semblance of freedom, formal freedom. And, nevertheless, he himself, soon convinced of this and not hiding it from the reader, nevertheless tries to find ways to resolve these contradictions and continues to lead his Emil along the path of free education,

Putting his pupil at this age only in dependence on things, J.-J. Rousseau, it seems to him, gives his pet the opportunity to feel freedom, to free himself from the influence of people with their prohibitions, orders, prescriptions, etc.

It is these various forms of influence and pressure on the child that limit the freedom of the pupil, fetter his growth and development, and also have a depressing effect on his psyche.

The child, as J.-J. Rousseau, should always walk with his head held high, feel not depressed and oppressed, but free and, therefore, happy. Although dependence on things, on nature, is also not a great blessing, it is also a “yoke”, “oppression”, “bridle”, however, the child himself very soon, through his own experience, having voluntarily realized and felt the need for this dependence, will not experience such oppression ( "there is almost no indignation against a well-realized necessity"), as from the side of people. From the yoke of the educator, from his power, J.-J. Rousseau, the child is constantly and persistently trying to free himself, using all sorts of tricks, inventing subterfuges. On such a basis, there can be no trust, no affection between the teacher and the child, and, consequently, there can be no successful education.

That is why, outwardly, the educator gives Emil complete freedom, complete independence in movements and actions, fearing, above all, submission to people, dependence on them, since the submission of one person to another is a deprivation of freedom, this is slavery. Let the pupil, says Rousseau, submit only to the necessity of things, and he, not knowing dependence on people, will be free. “Habits alone are good for children,” writes J.-J. Rousseau is the habit of easily submitting to the necessity of things. With the help of this "bridle" of necessity, the laws of the possible and impossible, the educator, according to J.-J. Rousseau, has the ability to skillfully manage his pupil. At the same time, the art of management, leadership does not consist in this, in order to constantly pull this “bridle” and thereby constantly disturb, unnerve, irritate our pet, but in order to subtly and gently control it, so subtly and imperceptibly that the child even, says Zh .-AND. Rousseau himself did not know about it, meekly following his leader. That's why J.-J. Rousseau argues that the main tool in the hands of the teacher is a well-directed freedom. And he explains his thought as follows: “There is no need to take up the upbringing of a child when you do not know how, to lead him wherever you want, with the help of some laws of the possible and impossible.”

Rejecting the path of influencing the child with the help of force, the power of the educator, J.-J. Rousseau further expresses essentially his pedagogical idea, which gives the key to understanding his entire theory of free education: “Choose the opposite path with your pupil; let him consider himself a master, but in fact you yourself will always be a master. There is no submission so perfect, somehow, which retains the outward appearance of freedom; here it enslaves the very will. J.-J. Isn't the poor child who knows nothing, can do nothing, knows nothing, is not in your power? Don't you have everything around him in relation to him? Don't you have the power to exert whatever influence you want on him? Are not his activities, games, pleasures, sorrows in your hands, even without his knowledge? Of course, he should only do what he wants; but he must want what you want from him; he should not take a single step that you have not envisaged; should not open his mouth if you do not know what he will say.

Subsequently, K.D.Ushinsky will notice in connection with this that J.-J. Rousseau deceives his pupil, offering him illusory, external freedom instead of true freedom. However, there is hardly any basis for such conclusions. In conditions when all living things in children were being strangled, when the rod was a tried-and-tested instrument of upbringing, the very raising of the question of freedom in upbringing, no matter how it was solved, had great revolutionary significance at that time as a passionate appeal in defense of the rights of the child, as a call for respect his human dignity.

And, nevertheless, it should be noted that J.-J. Rousseau, voluntarily or involuntarily, comes into direct conflict with his previous propositions and statements. Putting forward as the main thesis the idea of ​​the child's dependence only on things, and not recognizing any other submission, except for submission to the force of necessity, J.-J. Rousseau unexpectedly puts his pupil in complete dependence on people, in this case on the educator. But it is obvious that such an educator, whom J.-J. Rousseau, is not terrible for the freedom of the child, since the teacher and the child entered into a voluntary alliance between themselves in advance, based on the voluntary submission of the child to the teacher, and this, according to J.-J. Rousseau, does not contradict freedom. The educator understands the soul well, and takes into account the needs of his pupil, does not prevent him from satisfying his desires and interests, i.e. the teacher follows in everything the theory of natural and free education.

2.2 Education at different age periods of children's development

J. Rousseau created the first detailed periodization of mental development, however, the basis on which he divided childhood into periods, and the criteria for periodization were purely speculative, not related to facts and observations, but arising from the philosophical, theoretical views of Rousseau himself.

Natural education, described by J.-J. Rousseau in his work “Emil or on Education”, is carried out on the basis of the age periodization proposed by him. Based on the characteristic features inherent in children's nature at various stages of natural development, J.-J. Rousseau established four age periods in a child's life. Having determined the leading principle for each stage of development, he pointed out what the main attention of the educator should be directed to.

The first period is from birth to 2 years, before the appearance of speech. During this period, Rousseau considered it necessary to pay attention to the physical development of the child.

The second period - from 2 to 12 years - should be devoted to the sensory development of children. This is the period of J.-J. Rousseau figuratively calls it "the dream of reason." Believing that during this period the child was not yet capable of abstract thinking, he proposed mainly to develop his external feelings.

The third period - from 12 to 15 years - purposeful training is carried out. At this age, the main attention should be paid to mental and labor education.

The fourth period - from 15 years to adulthood, according to the terminology of J.-J. Rousseau, "the period of storms and passions." At this time, moral education should be brought to the fore, it is necessary to develop good feelings, good judgments and good will in children.

This age periodization was a step forward compared to the periodization established by Ya. A. Comenius. For the first time J.-J. Rousseau tried to reveal the internal laws of the development of the child, but at the same time he did not engage in a deep study of the characteristics of certain stages of childhood. Subjective protrusion as the main feature of any one characteristic of each age, gave a far-fetched, artificial character to its periodization.

The description of natural education in each of these periods is devoted to special parts (books) of the novel-tractate "Emil, or about education".

In the first book of "Emil ..." J.-J. Rousseau gave a number of specific instructions on upbringing in early childhood (up to two years), concerning mainly the care of the child: his nutrition, hygiene, hardening, etc. The first care for the child, he believed, should belong to the mother, who, if perhaps she feeds him with her own milk. “No mother, no child!” he exclaimed. From the first days of a baby's life, she provides him with freedom of movement, without tightening him tightly with a sling; shows concern for its hardening. Rousseau was opposed to the "coddling" of children. “Accustom,” he wrote, “children to trials ... Temper their bodies against bad weather, climates, the elements, hunger, thirst, fatigue.”

Strengthening the child's body, satisfying his natural needs, however, one should not indulge his whims, since the fulfillment of any desires of the child can turn him into a tyrant. Children, according to J.-J. Rousseau, “one begins by forcing himself to be helped, and ends by forcing himself to be served.”

From the age of two, a new period in the life of a child begins, now the main attention should be paid to the development of the senses. As a supporter of sensationalism J.-J. Rousseau believed that sensory education precedes mental education. “Everything that enters into human thinking penetrates there through the senses…” he wrote. “In order to learn to think, it is therefore necessary to exercise our limbs, our senses, our organs, which are the instruments of our mind.” In the second book of "Emil ..." J.-J. Rousseau described in detail how, in his opinion, the individual sense organs should be exercised. He proposed various exercises recommended by him for the development of touch, vision, and hearing in a natural setting.

Since, Rousseau believed, the mind of a child at this age is still asleep, it is premature and harmful to carry out training. He was against artificially forcing the development of children's speech, as this could lead to bad pronunciation, as well as to their misunderstanding of what they were talking about; meanwhile, it is very important to ensure that they speak only about what they really know.

J.-J. Rousseau artificially separated the development of sensations and thinking and expressed an assumption that does not correspond to reality, that children under 12 years old are allegedly incapable of generalizations and therefore their teaching should be postponed until the age of 12.

He admitted, of course, that a child could learn to read outside of school. But then the first and only book so far should be "Robinson Crusoe D. Defoe" - a book that best meets the pedagogical ideas of J.-J. Rousseau.

J.-J. Rousseau believed that before the age of 12 it was unacceptable not only to teach a child, but also to give him moral instructions, since he did not yet have the relevant life experience. At this age, he believed, the most effective method would be to use the method of "natural consequences", in which the child has the opportunity to experience the negative consequences of his misdeeds. For example, if he breaks a chair, you should not immediately replace it with a new one: let him feel how uncomfortable it is to do without a chair; if he breaks the glass in the window of his room, there is no need to rush to insert it: let him feel how uncomfortable and cold it has become. "It's better to get caught, he's got a runny nose, than to grow up insane."

The merit of J.-J. Rousseau in that he rejected boring moralizing with children, as well as the harsh methods of influencing them that were widely used at that time. However, the method of “natural consequences” recommended by him as a universal method cannot replace all the various methods that instill in the child the skills and abilities of handling things and communicating with people.

From the age of 2 to 12, children should get acquainted, on the basis of personal experience, with natural and some social phenomena, develop their external senses, be active in the process of games and physical exercises, and perform feasible agricultural work.

The third age period, from 12 to 15 years, according to J.-J. Rousseau, the best time for learning, as the pupil has a surplus of strength that should be directed to acquiring knowledge. Since this period is very short, it is necessary to choose from the numerous sciences those that the child can study with the greatest benefit for him. J.-J. Rousseau also believed that the humanities, in particular history, are inaccessible to a teenager who is still little familiar with the field of human relations, and therefore he suggested studying the sciences of nature: geography, astronomy, physics (natural history).

The goal of mental education J.-J. Rousseau considered awakening in a teenager an interest and love for the sciences, arming him with a method of acquiring knowledge. In accordance with this, he proposed to radically restructure the content and methodology of education on the basis of the development of amateur performance and activity of children. The child acquires knowledge of geography, getting acquainted with the surroundings of the village in which he lives; studies astronomy, observing the starry sky, sunrise and sunset; masters physics by experimenting. He rejected textbooks and always put the pupil in the position of a researcher who discovers scientific truths. “Let him,” said J.-J. Rousseau, - achieves knowledge not through you, but through himself; let him not memorize science, but invent it himself.” This is the requirement of J.-J. Rousseau expressed his passionate protest against the feudal school, divorced from life, from the experience of the child. Persistent recommendations of J.-J. Rousseau to develop observation, curiosity, activity in children, to stimulate the development of independent judgments in them, was undoubtedly historically progressive. But at the same time, in the views of J.-J. Rousseau also contains erroneous propositions on education: he failed to connect the limited personal experience of the child with the experience accumulated by mankind and reflected in the sciences; recommended to start the mental education of children at a very late age.

At the age of 12-15, a teenager, along with training, should also receive labor education, which began in the previous period. Democrat J.-J. Rousseau considered work as a social duty of every person. According to him, every idle citizen - rich or poor, strong or weak - is a rogue.

J.-J. Rousseau believed that the participation of a teenager in the labor activity of adults would give him the opportunity to understand modern social relations - he would arouse in him respect for workers, contempt for people living at someone else's expense. In labor, he also saw an effective means for the mental development of the child. (“Emile must work like a peasant and think like a philosopher,” said J.-J. Rousseau.) J.-J. Rousseau believed that the teenager needed to master not only certain types of agricultural labor, but also the techniques of the craft. The most suitable in this case, he said, is carpentry: it exercises the body enough, requires dexterity and ingenuity, the carpenter makes things useful for everyone, and not luxury items. Having learned carpentry as the main craft, the child can then get acquainted with other crafts. This should be done in a natural working environment, in the workshop of an artisan, joining the life of the working people, drawing closer to them.

Fifteen years is the age when it is necessary to educate a young man for life among the people of that social stratum in which he will have to live and act in the future. J.-J. Rousseau set three main tasks of moral education: the development of good feelings, good judgments and good will. He put forward the development of positive emotions to the fore, which, in his opinion, contribute to arousing a humane attitude towards people in a young man, fostering kindness, compassion for the disadvantaged and oppressed. By means of "education of the heart" in J.-J. Rousseau is served not by moralizing, but by direct contact with human grief and misfortune, as well as good examples.

parenting age child russo

Conclusion

So, the central place in the pedagogical activity of Jean-Jacques Rousseau is occupied by the idea of ​​natural education, which is most fully and consistently presented in his work “Emile or on Education”. We note the main provisions of this theory:

Under the natural education of J.-J. Rousseau understood education in accordance with nature, and for this it is necessary to follow the nature of the child, take into account his age characteristics. J.-J. Rousseau offers his age periodization, developing in detail the content of education in each period. Each age should correspond to special forms of education and training. At the same time, intellectual education should be preceded by the exercise of the physical forces and sense organs of the pupils.

The formation of a person occurs under the influence of three factors of education: nature, things, people. The main factor in the education of J.-J. Rousseau considers nature, things, and people only create conditions for education;

Child J.-J. Rousseau placed at the center of the educational process, but at the same time he opposed excessive indulgence of children, concessions to their demands, whims;

The educator must accompany the child in all his trials and experiences, direct his formation, promote his natural growth, create conditions for his development, but never impose his will on him.

It should be noted that no other work devoted to the education of children, either before or after Emil or on Education, had such a strong influence on the development of pedagogical thought. The followers of Jean-Jacques Rousseau were attracted by his belief in the power of children's nature, following the upbringing of the spontaneous development of the child, giving him wide freedom.

Rousseau's pedagogical theory was never embodied in the form in which the author imagined it, but he left ideas that were accepted by other enthusiasts, developed further and used in different ways in the practice of education and training.

"Russo! Russo! Your memory is now kind to people: you died, but your spirit lives in Emil, but your heart lives in Eloise, - this is how the Russian historian and writer Karamzin expressed his admiration for the great Frenchman.

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