Modern problems of science and education. Physical development
The physical development of children and adolescents is the growth and formation of the child's body, including the pace, stages and critical periods of its maturation, inherited characteristics, individual variability, maturity and connection with factors of the internal and external environment. The indicators of physical development are anthropometric data, the rate of their change during growth, harmony of development, the ratio of calendar and biological age, constitutional features. Assessment of the physical development of the child population based on anthropometric data is one of the key indicators of the health of the child population and is important for doctors, teachers and sports coaches. The purpose of this work is to analyze the available Russian publications on the physical development of the child population in Russia. Most authors agree that for a generalized assessment of the physical development of a child, it is sufficient to observe changes in 4 main anthropometric indicators: body length and weight, chest and head circumference. The bulk of research confirms that changes in the indicators of physical development of children and adolescents depend on climatic, ethnic, environmental conditions and the degree of anthropogenic load. The studied literature confirms the need for the development and regular revision of regional standards for the physical development of children at different periods of life. Monitoring of regional standards for the physical development of children during critical periods of their development should be considered by pediatricians and specialists in the field of physical culture and sports for planning activities with children and dosing physical activity, as well as in sports selection and orientation.
physical development
anthropometry
sports selection.
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24. Muratova I.V. Assessment of physical development and physical fitness of junior schoolchildren of secondary schools of the Republic of Mordovia // Bulletin of sports science. - 2009. - S. 59-61.
25. Efimova N.V. Physical development of children and adolescents in the northern cities of Eastern Siberia / N.V. Efimova, V.A. Nikiforova, T.A. Belyaeva // Bulletin of St. Petersburg University. - 2008. - Issue. 3. - Ser. 11. - S. 108-111.
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29. Prokopiev N. Ya. Dynamics of physical development of 8-year-old boys at the initial stage of sports activities / N.Ya. Prokopiev, A.M. Durov // Theory and practice of physical culture. - 2017. - No. 12. - P. 49-52.
One of the main directions of modernization of the system of physical education in preschool and municipal educational institutions is the introduction of monitoring the state of health, physical development and physical fitness of students. Monitoring the state of health and physical development of children becomes especially relevant in connection with the implementation of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation "On the All-Russian Physical Culture and Sports Complex" Ready for Labor and Defense (TRP) ".
The physical development of children and adolescents is the growth and formation of the child's body, including the pace, stages and critical periods of its maturation, inherited characteristics, individual variability, maturity and connection with factors of the internal and external environment. The indicators of physical development are anthropometric data, the rate of their change during growth, harmony of development, the ratio of calendar and biological age, constitutional features. Assessment of the physical development of the child population is an important criterion in a medical examination and is important primarily for pediatricians, secondly for general practitioners and, of course, for teachers. In recent decades, there has been a tendency for the deterioration of indicators of physical development, especially in ecologically unfavorable agricultural and industrial regions. As a result, pathological changes in the systems and apparatus of internal organs can develop, and maladaptive changes in the psychoemotional sphere also occur. These disorders in children begin to manifest themselves clearly with an increase in the workload associated with the learning process at school. The hard work of comprehending serious sciences has been supplemented by the Ministry of Education and Science with such a subject as physical education, which, against the background of an increase in the volume of theoretical knowledge, also takes care of improving the state of health and maintaining the body in the right tone. A decrease in the child's motor activity caused by impaired physical development can aggravate changes in the internal organs. Physical education is a conscious physical activity aimed at maintaining and strengthening health. The development of standards for physical education in schools, as well as in kindergartens, must be carried out, taking into account the peculiarities of the physical development of children and adolescents.
Particular attention in the field of physical activity is occupied by modern sport, which is now rapidly growing younger. In such famous, beautiful, spectacular and very popular sports as figure skating, artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, children are taken as soon as they turn 4 years old. Sports sections are primarily aimed at achieving results and promoting young athletes to the heights of sports. Strict discipline in sports, sometimes comparable to military discipline, contributes to the development of an athlete's sense of purpose and team action. Many hours of training are associated with a heavy load beyond the years. Unfortunately, this causes enormous harm to the health of the child. But it is for health that parents send their children to sports sections. It should be noted that chronic muscle fatigue leads to cerebral hypoxia, since all oxygen is directed to the restoration of muscle tissue. As a result, there is an absent-mindedness in the attention of such children in the educational process at school. A significant number of female athletes have developmental delays and even have no periods. An active load on the muscles slows down the growth of bones in length. Sports injuries are also a significant burden. Children are poorly aware of the danger and therefore easily go to difficult exercises, and sometimes frankly dangerous elements. Irreparable harm is caused by the so-called asymmetric sports: tennis, badminton, hockey, fencing, etc. They affect the musculoskeletal system, forming scoliosis. In sports sections, as a rule, there is no game form of classes, which is the norm for children under 6 years old. However, most coaches believe that the sports section is not a kindergarten or a school, as a result, they do not adhere to the standards for physical education. It is very important to consolidate the work of trainers and pediatricians. The doctor must examine the child in order to understand whether he is ready to perform increased physical activity, i.e., first of all, to determine the level of the child's physical development. And then conduct regular examinations, which should be aimed not only at monitoring physical development, but also determining the normal functioning of such important life support systems as cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous. Any hidden health problems can, of course, level out with age, if you do not subject the growing body to inadequate stress. For example, puberty, when there are imbalances in the development of almost all organ systems. Naturally, this leads to a deterioration in adaptation processes, a decrease in working capacity, a slowdown in recovery reactions after training and competitive loads. Sports training aimed only at achieving results can aggravate the condition of a young athlete, up to death as a result of cardiac arrest.
To assess physical development, an easily accessible and widely used in medicine method of anthropometry is used, which uses a fairly wide range of indicators: body length (TD), body weight (MT), chest and head circumference (BH), and other circumference of the trunk and limbs, allowing to determine the morpho-phenotype (body type or somatotype) of a person. The somatotype is a morphological characteristic of a person and acts as a characteristic of human health. Indicators of physical development and body type are important not only in medicine, but also in physical education, as well as in sports.
Purpose of the study- analysis of modern literature, which reflects the variability of the physical development of children and adolescents in different regions of our country and the factors affecting these indicators.
Research results. The geography of research works is very wide. Anthropometric indicators are studied not only in cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Samara, Saratov, Belgorod), but also in the republics (Mordovia, Bashkortostan, Karelia), as well as in Siberia and other regions of the country.
Frontal studies, where children of the same region in a wide age range were observed, are not numerous. So, in 2006, the authors V.S. Masyuk and I.M. Shabalin analyzed the level of physical development of 28,448 children aged 1 to 18 years of the Republic of Karelia according to 3 anthropometric indicators: DT, MT, OGK. In all age groups, the authors revealed disharmonious development with a tendency to asthenization.
In the Samara region, in addition to DT, MT, and OGK, in 1160 children aged 0 to 17 years, the lengths of the femur (LB) and the lower leg (DG) were studied. According to E.N. Burakova (2016), rapid growth is observed in boys at 0-12 months, at 3-4 years old and 13-14 years old, while in girls under one year old, then at 2-3 years old and at 12-13 years old. When studying MT, a period of rapid weight gain was noted in children of both sexes twice: at 3-4 years old and at 11-13 years old. An increase in length characteristics (an increase in DB is ahead of DH) during periods of rapid growth is heterochronous and only in girls. The periods of "rounding" and "stretching" are very clearly traced, which precisely characterize the allometry of child growth. Since with isometric growth, all indicators change proportionally.
In Vladikavkaz, according to N.A. Merkulova (2010), when assessing the physical development of 7000 schoolchildren (7-17 years old), it was noted that the number of children with low TD and MT deficiency is constantly increasing. Such changes in indicators are associated with climatic and geographical conditions. The well-known exogenous (environmental) factors are hot climate and high mountains. They reduce the growth rates of the child population.
A significant adverse effect on the physical development of the child population is exerted by the course of the mother's pregnancy (gestosis, infectious diseases of the mother, especially in the first trimester of pregnancy, severe chronic diseases, poor nutrition, bad habits, etc.). Therefore, researchers of the Irkutsk region analyzed the physical development of full-term babies (38-40 weeks) from pregnancies I-II and I-II health groups. During the first year of life, children were measured DT and MT, WGC and OG, all the results obtained formed the basis of the methodological recommendations "Standards for the physical development of children in the first year of life living in the Irkutsk region." In the Belgorod region, 9000 newborns were studied in the period from 1973 to 2006 in order to study the influence of environmental factors on the physical development of children, as well as anthropometry of preschool and primary school children was carried out. As a result, it was found that the dynamics of morphological and functional indicators of newborns for 32 years is wave-like, with a predominance of them in boys. Areas with a high (regional center) and low (districts and villages of the Belgorod region) indicators of physical development have been identified. The average values of the anthropometric characteristics of newborns in areas with different ecological situations leveled off by the end of the 20th century, which is explained by a decrease in anthropogenic load due to the general economic decline in production. The correlation dependence of the morphological and functional characteristics of newborns on some signs of their mothers has also been established. The most closely related are the main morphological and functional indicators of newborns with body weight and pelvic sizes of their mothers. The influence on the anthropometric indicators of newborns due to the timing of delivery has been established. In preterm birth, a decrease in indicators was noted, and in belated births - an increase. During the caesarean section, a decrease in the anthropometric parameters of newborns was also noted.
Most authors agree that developmental disharmony is not typical in infants and young children. In the Engels district of the Saratov region, 2136 children from 1 month to 3 years old were studied. According to N.I. Zryachkin. and T.V. Elizarova (2013), it was revealed that children with harmonious development prevail at this age (71.6%). Disharmony occurs in 20.4% of cases, and sharp disharmony in only 8%.
The indicators of physical development of preschool and school children differ in different regions of the country in different ways. In Belgorod and the region, anthropometric indicators in preschoolers and primary schoolchildren are of great importance in boys, with the exception of the circumference of the buttocks in girls of preschool age. The greatest growth spurt in children of both sexes was noted at the age of 5-5.5 years and 8-9 years. Comparative analysis of the main anthropometric indicators (DT and MT) of Belgorod and Moscow children of the same age did not reveal significant differences. Belgorod children were inferior only in terms of WBC and the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer.
In the city of Saransk (Mordovia) in 2009, 1577 students of grades 1-5 were studied. According to I.V. Muratova, on the basis of the following indicators: DT, MT and OGK, it was noted that the rate of change in DT in girls was 1.5-2% higher than in boys. But only in elementary school, while by the fifth grade, boys began to overtake their peers in terms of height. There were no differences in the growth rates of MT and TGC in primary school, and only in the fifth grade did boys have an increase in TGC (5.8%) compared to girls (4.8%). It should be noted that the author compared the results obtained in his study with the same indicators of physical development of schoolchildren in grades 1-5 in Moscow. Students from Mordovia were inferior in terms of the level of physical development to schoolchildren from Moscow.
The same anthropometric indicators were used to assess the physical development of preschoolers and schoolchildren in the northern cities of Eastern Siberia. According to N.V. Efimova et al. (2008), it was found that DT in children under 6 years old corresponds to the average age-sex standards, and only at the age of 12-14 years did the so-called pubertal growth spurt observed. MT indicators were within regional norms up to 10 years. Further, weight gain was observed in children of both sexes. MCG in girls and boys of preschool and primary school ages corresponded to the norms. At the age of 9-10, this indicator for girls was below the regional standard, and at the age of 12-14, it was higher. In boys of the same age, this parameter was always higher than normal. In this regard, the authors talk about the disharmonious physical development of children. The percentage of such children varied from 15.2 to 29.9% depending on the city of Eastern Siberia. And in the Republic of Bashkortostan, in a study of 450 boys of 9 years old (in the northern and southern regions), DT and MT were defined as “average” and “above average”, the type of development was characterized as “harmonious”.
In the region of the Tyumen North, DT, MT and OGK were studied in children of 11-18 years of age of the indigenous (325) and newcomers (352). It was found that girls have lower DT indicators than boys. Throughout the entire age period, the increase in MT is 14-20 kg, however, it is uneven, especially in girls. OGK in all groups in boys is 2-3 cm higher than in girls. Comparison of the results obtained in ethnic groups shows that a growth leap in "newcomer" children is observed at the age of 11-13 years, and in the indigenous group (Nenets and Khanty) later - from 13 to 15 years. Even when comparing the physical development of children of the Far North with other regions of the country, a 1 year delay in the growth leap was established.
Some scientists study the physical development of children, taking into account the body type. So, according to I.I. Orlova (2013), in the city of Krasnoyarsk, in children of 4 years old, DT and MT in boys was slightly higher than in girls. By body type, normosthenic children (54.2%) and pycnic-type children (41.7%) predominated. Revealed 4.2% of children of the asthenic type. By the age of 7, the asthenic somatotype was found in 62.5% of cases, the normosthenic type in 29.2%, and the pycnic type in 8.3%. The author notes that these changes can be regarded as gracilization in the formation of physical development.
In a dynamic study by Prokopyev N.Ya et al. (2017), a group of 8-year-old boys from Tyumen involved in sports was taken. When assessing physical development at the beginning of the study in 2005, boys with asthenoid and thoracic body types prevailed; by 2016, the number of children with abdominal body types had increased. Over the entire observation period, both TD and MT in the studied boys increased, which indicates the continuation of the acceleration process that takes place in most children of the Russian Federation.
Conclusion. Thus, for each age period, certain anatomical and physiological characteristics are characteristic, on the basis of which it is necessary to solve the issues of organizing the daily regimen, care, education, nutrition, organization of the educational process, measures for the prevention of diseases, as well as methods and forms of health improvement associated with physical education. and sports. Most authors agree that for a generalized assessment of the physical development of a child, it is sufficient to observe changes in 4 main anthropometric indicators: DT, MT, OGK and OG. The bulk of research confirms that changes in the indicators of physical development of children and adolescents in comparison with standard indicators depend on climatic, ethnic, ecological conditions and the degree of anthropogenic load. The studied literature confirms the need for the development and regular revision of regional standards for the physical development of children at different periods of life. Monitoring of regional standards for the physical development of children during critical periods of their development should be considered by pediatricians and specialists in the field of physical culture and sports for planning activities with children and dosing physical activity, as well as in sports selection and orientation. It is extremely important to pay attention to the smooth process of the child's entry into the activities in the sports sections. The first years should be aimed at training in general physical fitness of children, with a gradual increase in loads. This is the most correct path to sports. The health status of young athletes should be monitored by a pediatrician on an ongoing basis. It is a doctor focused on training healthy athletes who can give physiologically grounded recommendations to teachers-trainers on a possible increase in the number of loads so that their volume and intensity contribute to the development of a healthy body, and not only to achieve high results at the limit of physical capabilities.
Bibliographic reference
Gelashvili O.A., Khisamov R.R., Shalneva I.R. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS // Modern problems of science and education. - 2018. - No. 3 .;URL: http: // site / ru / article / view? Id = 27656 (date accessed: 20.03.2019).
We bring to your attention the journals published by the "Academy of Natural Sciences"
The physical development of a child is a set of morphological and functional properties of an organism that characterize the process of its development in each age period.
Morphological indicators include body length (height) and its weight, chest circumference, sitting growth, functional indicators - vital capacity of the lungs, muscle strength of the hands, degree of fat deposition, state of support and movement organs (shape of the chest, spinal column, lower extremities , feet, development of muscle tissue, posture), as well as the development of movement and speech in children. Physical development is influenced by heredity, disease, climate and living conditions.
The indicators of physical development are markedly reduced if the child's development takes place in poor living conditions associated with an insufficient amount of fresh air, sun, inadequate nutrition, lack of sleep, a sedentary lifestyle, accompanied by acute and chronic diseases.
Physical development has its own laws, according to which it changes during the life of the child. In a healthy child, these changes fit into certain age norms. To obtain age-sex norms, a large contingent of children is examined simultaneously, homogeneous in age, gender, nationality, etc. Statistical processing of data on the state of health and physical development of children makes it possible to determine the average indicators (norms) of physical development of each age group. The physical development of each child individually is assessed by comparing his individual indicators with standard ones. An individual assessment of physical development is carried out to determine the correspondence between the biological and calendar age of the child, the characteristics of the dynamics of development.
2. Physical development assessment
Physical development is one of the important indicators of a child's health. The study of physical development is carried out simultaneously with the study of the state of health during medical examinations conducted in children's and adolescent institutions. At the same time, the ratio of the chronological and somatic age of children, the degree of harmony in the development of various physical signs, is determined, which gives the doctor the opportunity to predict the development of diseases and timely correct the identified deviations. Today there are two methods for collecting anthropometric material.
1. Individualizing method - examination of a specific child, one-time or in dynamics for several years, followed by an assessment of the biological level of his development and the harmony of the morphological and functional state using the appropriate assessment tables.
2. The generalizing method is a one-step examination of large groups of children in order to obtain regional age-sex standards and assessment tables used both for an individual assessment of physical development and for an ecological and hygienic assessment of the territory. The method makes it possible to observe dynamic shifts in the physical development of children in a given region in connection with the state of health, physical education, nutrition, living conditions, etc.
Anthropometric data collected by the generalizing method are used for the purpose of hygienic rationing in the development of standards for furniture for children, equipment for workshops, gymnasiums, for the hygienic justification of the size of children's instruments, clothes, shoes and other children's household items. When conducting anthropometric studies, methodological perfection and thoroughness are required in the collection and processing of anthropometric material, the use of unified techniques, which makes the results of individual observations obtained by different authors comparable to each other and makes it possible to widely use the data obtained. In studies of physical development, indicators of somatometry, somatoscopy and physiometry are used. When conducting a study of physical development, the following requirements must be observed:
1. The state of health and physical development of children and adolescents
- measurements are taken on a naked child who is standing at attention;
- the health worker is to the right or in front of the child
- all measurements are taken between anthropometric points
- research is carried out in the first half of the day in a warm, bright room;
- anthropometric and medical instruments should be standardized, metrologically verified, easily processed with disinfectants.
To measure, use a stadiometer or anthropometer, medical scales, rubberized measuring tape, dynamometer, spirometer, plantograph, caliper.
3 .Indicators and methods for assessing physical development .
One of the most important indicators of the health of a growing organism is physical development. Under physical development a child is understood to be the degree of development of morpho-functional characteristics, which, on the one hand, determine the stock of his physical strength, and on the other hand, are a criterion for the normality of the process of growth and formation of the child's body at each specific age. Physical development is subject to general biological laws, as well as the action of socio-economic, medico-biological and environmental factors.
The child's body is the most sensitive to the effects of unfavorable environmental factors, which manifests itself in the form of disturbances in the physiological course of growth and development processes. At the same time, it was found that deviations in the timing of age-related development and disharmony of the morpho-functional state, as a rule, are combined with changes in the state of health of children, and the more significant the disorders in physical development, the more the likelihood of the disease. In this regard, the assessment of the physical development of children is included as an important indicator in any program for studying the state of health, from mass preventive examinations of children and adolescents to the analysis of individual pathological conditions. There is a point assessment of the health status of children, which takes into account the health group and physical development.
The study of physical development is carried out in a comprehensive manner according to the summary data: somatometric, somatoscopic and physiometric.
Assessment of physical development can be carried out by the method of sigma deviations with a graphic representation of the profile of physical development; on regression scales; centile method; using screening tests.
In recent years, the method of complex assessment of physical development has become widespread in practice, which involves not only determining the morpho-functional status (degree and harmony of development), but also establishing the level of biological development of children.
The indicators of the biological development of children of preschool and primary school age are: body length, increase in body length over the last year, the number of permanent teeth ("dental maturity"), etc. signs, timing of the onset of the first menstruation in girls.
It has been reliably established that children and adolescents who have a harmonious, age-appropriate physical development are most favorable in terms of health, since the child's adaptive capabilities, his resistance to various loads (physical and mental order) are optimal in this case. Slowing down or accelerating maturation, on the contrary, is considered as a risk factor for the occurrence of various diseases - in the extreme variants of development, significant differences are usually revealed for a number of nosological forms.
At an accelerated rate of development in children, there is often a decrease in physical performance, a tendency to allergic diseases, hypertrophy of the tonsils, hypertensive reactions. Lagging in biological age in children is usually combined with reduced anthropometric indicators, frequent deviations from the musculoskeletal system, nervous and cardiovascular systems . The morpho-functional state is determined by the parameters of the body, the circumference of the chest in a pause, the muscle strength of the hands and the vital capacity of the lungs. As an additional criterion for differentiating excess body weight and chest circumference due to fat deposition or muscle development, the indicators of skin and fat folds are used. By comparing the obtained data with standard ones (regression scales for body length, age-sex standards of functional indicators, tables of average indicators of the thickness of skin and fat folds, etc.), the morpho-functional state is determined as harmonious, disharmonious or sharply disharmonious. Thus, when assessing physical development according to a comprehensive scheme, the conclusion should contain a conclusion about the correspondence of physical development to age and its harmony. A scheme of individual assessment of physical development is proposed, which makes it possible to distinguish the so-called "risk groups" of diseases on the basis of the identified violations of the rates of development and the harmony of the morpho-functional status.Children whose biological age corresponds to the calendar age, and whose physical development is harmonious, are the most prosperous in terms of health. Children with an advance or lagging biological age while maintaining the harmony of the morpho-functional state, as well as children developing in accordance with age, but having a mass deficit bodies, constitute a group of the first degree of risk of diseases. Children with an advance or lagging biological age, combined with any disharmony of the morpho-functional state, as well as children developing in accordance with age m, but overweight, constitute a group of the second degree of risk. All children who have a sharp disharmony in physical development, both in violation of the timing of age development, and developing according to age, constitute a group of the third degree of risk. The selected groups need various treatment and diagnostic measures:
1st group - in-depth examination;
2nd group - in-depth examination and dispensary observation;
3rd group - examination, dispensary observation and outpatient or inpatient treatment.
The physical development of a child is a process of biological maturation of cells, tissues, organs and the whole organism. Outwardly, it is characterized by an increase in the size of parts of the child's body and a change in the functional activity of his various organs and systems. The main indicators of physical development are the length and weight of the body, the circumference of the chest. However, when assessing the physical development of a child, they are guided not only by these somatic values (Greek soma - body), but also use the results of physiometric measurements (vital capacity of the lungs, the force of compression of the hand, back force, blood pressure, etc.) and somatoscopic data (development of the musculoskeletal system, fat deposition, sexual development, various abnormalities in the physique). Only by the combination of these indicators can the level of physical development be established. Therefore, physical development is understood as a complex of morphological and functional indicators of an individual at a given time. Human physical development is determined by genetic and social factors.
Currently, based on a survey of a large number of children and adolescents, evaluation tables have been developed containing anthropometric indicators of the physical development of healthy children and adolescents (standards, norms). Physical development standards are regional, ethnic and require constant updating. Any significant deviation from the average data indicates a violation of the physical development of the child; various diseases often underlie these disorders.
Several groups of physical development are distinguished according to the ratio of the main three indicators - body length and weight, chest circumference, where body length is fundamental:
- proportional developed- body weight and chest circumference correspond to body length: from M - I o to M + 2 o;
- good development- body weight and chest circumference may exceed the proper indicators due to the musculature, but not more than 2a;
- impaired development- body weight and chest circumference lag behind the proper indicators by more than 2a;
- overweight children- body weight and chest circumference are more than 2o higher than the proper indicators due to fat deposition.
Deviations of anthropometric signs from the arithmetic mean (M) within 1 o are considered as variants of the norm for this sign. Children of the last two groups of physical development need appropriate observation and examination, in a thorough study of information about the conditions of their previous life. From an early age, it is necessary to control the amount of adipose tissue in the body. Poor, unbalanced diet and other reasons can lead to obesity. An excessive decrease in the amount of body fat leads to disturbances in the endocrine system. In particular, a lack of fat leads to dysfunction of the gonads, menstrual irregularities in adolescent girls and adult women, impotence in men.
If body weight and chest circumference correspond to height (i.e. fluctuations in these signs do not go beyond 1 o), then physical development should be considered harmonious, if not - disharmonious. Disharmony sometimes occurs during early sports specialization, as a result of certain types of sports training. Such forms of disharmony can have a negative impact on the dynamics of growth and development in the future.
There are also several groups of physical development separately according to body length:
- low - from M - 2o and below;
- below average - from M - 1o to M - 2o;
- middle - from M - 1o to M + 1o;
- above average - from M + 1 o to M + 2o;
- high - from M + 2o and above.
The level of physical development is one of the leading signs of the health of children and adolescents, the main indicator reflecting the totality of morphological and physiological signs, which are associated with indicators of physical and sexual maturity, physical strength and harmonious development. It must be remembered that physical development is approximately 70% determined by heredity and 30% by environmental factors.
A low level of physical development can be the result of an unbalanced, inappropriate diet, the presence of a number of chronic diseases, excessive or insufficient physical activity. A high level of physical development associated with
overweight, can be combined with obesity, which indicates disorders in the endocrine system. Lagging and advancing in the pace of physical development may be the result of deviations in the functions of the central nervous system.
Each teacher and educator, encountering their little pets every day, bears a special responsibility for their normal development, therefore, it is mandatory for a teacher to be able to assess the degree of a child's physical development. This is important not only from a hygienic standpoint, but also for the correct organization of individual teaching and educational work, since children with the worst developmental indicators require more attention.
At each stage of ontogenesis, the child's body is ready to accept a certain volume of demands made by life. Because of this, it is of great importance to study not the average parameters, but the individual-typological characteristics of the physical development of children and adolescents (constitutional types). Currently, the concept prevails about the constitution as a set of functional and morphological characteristics of the organism, formed on the basis of hereditary and acquired properties and determining its capacity for action and reactivity(the nature of the response to various influences).
NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
EASTERN ECONOMIC AND LEGAL HUMANITARIAN ACADEMY
(VEGU Academy)
Speciality -
Specialization -
Mukhametshin Vladimir Fedorovich
COURSE WORK
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS.
supervisor
Neftekamsk - 2017
CONTENT
Introduction
1. Methods for studying the physical development of children
and adolescents
2. The main patterns of growth and development of children
and adolescents
3. Features of physical development and functional capabilities of modern adolescents 15-17 years old
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INTRODUCTION
The physical development of a growing organism is one of the
basic indicators of the child's health. The more significant
disorders in the physical development of the child, the more likely
the presence of a disease.
Obeying biological laws, physical development depends on social conditions and is used by hygienic
science as an indicator of the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population. Currently indicators of physical development
children and adolescents are analyzed for ecological and hygienic assessment of the state of the territory, analysis of the influence of social factors,
conditions of upbringing, education, organization of leisure and recreation, labor activity of children and adolescents.
The idea of the importance of studying the indicators of human physical development in science was formed by the middle of the 19th century thanks to the works of the French scientist P. Brock and the Belgian scientist Quetelet. V
at the beginning of the 20th century, anthropometric technique received significant
improvement in the works of the German anthropologist R. Martin.
In Russia, the study of indicators of the physical development of children
collectives has become one of the scientific directions since the time of F.F. Erismana in the village of Glukhovo, Moscow region in 1879
year, when the patterns of the growth of children were revealed depending on
from gender and conditions of upbringing.
In the classic work of P.N. Bashkirov (1962) "Teaching
on the physical development of a person "were independently identified: military anthropometry, school anthropometry, preschool
anthropometry, professional anthropometry, physical culture
anthropometry. Speaking about school anthropometry, the author notes
that the physical development of children should be understood not only
morpho-functional properties of the organism, which ultimately determine the stock of its physical strength, but also those biological processes,
which are especially characteristic for the child's body. Examining these
processes are dictated by the requests of the clinic, pediatrics, as well as pedagogy.
The need to analyze physical development as an indicator that is easily amenable to objective study and comparison
health of the child population was first scientifically substantiated by S.M.
Grombach (1965). According to S.M. Grombach: "The level and state
physical development of numerous children's groups serves
easily amenable to objective study and comparison of indicators of the health of the child population. In this capacity, generalized
data on the state of physical development of the child population, in
to a certain extent are the subject of medical statistics,
allowing to predict the development of the population, take those
or other decisions at the legislative level ”.
Approaches to assessing the physical development of children and adolescents are constantly being improved and developed based on the goals and objectives
research, exchange of experience and use of recommendations of various international medical organizations.
Assessment of indicators of physical development of children and adolescents
occupies a strong position in the system of social and hygienic
monitoring, both in relation to residents of different climatic and geographical regions, and children brought up in educational
institutions of various types. Still of interest
study of the physical development of orphans and children left without
parental care, as it is they who are influenced by all
modern unfavorable factors.
1. METHODS OF STUDYING THE PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS.
There are two methods for collecting anthropometric material.
1. Individualizing method - examination of a specific
a single child or in the dynamics of several years with a subsequent assessment of his biological level of development and harmony
morpho-functional state using the appropriate assessment tables.
2. Generalizing method - a one-step examination of large groups of children in order to obtain regional age-sex
standards and assessment tables used both for an individual assessment of physical development and for environmental and hygienic
assessment of the territory. The method allows you to monitor dynamic shifts in the physical development of children in a given region
in connection with the state of health, physical education,
food, conditions of education, upbringing, life, etc.
Anthropometric data collected by generalizing
method, are used for the purposes of hygienic regulation in
development of furniture standards for preschool institutions and schools,
equipment of workshops, gymnasiums, for the hygienic justification of the size of children's tools, clothes, shoes and
other items of children's use.
When conducting anthropometric studies, it is necessary
methodical perfection and thoroughness in the collection and processing
anthropometric material, the use of standardized
techniques, which makes the results of individual observations obtained
When conducting anthropometric studies, it is necessary
comply with the following requirements:
1. Anthropometric measurements are carried out on a naked child, in the overwhelming majority of cases, in the "standing
quietly "(the child stands erect, tucking up his stomach and straightening
shoulders, hands down at the side of the body, with heels together, socks apart,
the head is installed in the "horizontal" position - lower edge
the eye sockets and the upper edge of the ear tragus are in the same horizontal
noah plane. During measurements, the investigator as
usually located to the right or in front of the subject.
2. All measurements should be carried out only between the so-called "anthropometric points", which are understood
certain points on the body corresponding to clearly expressed and
easily palpable skeletal formations and lying, as a rule, on the sagittal or lateral lines of the body.
3. Anthropometric studies are carried out in the first half of the day, since body length by the end of the day decreases by 1-2 cm due to flattening of the arches of the foot, intervertebral cartilage, decreased muscle tone, and body weight increases by an average of almost 1 kg.
4. The room in which the research is carried out must be
warm and light.
5. Anthropometric instrumentation should be standardized, metrologically verified, easily treated with disinfectants.
6. The data of anthropometric measurements are entered into an individual anthropometric map for each examined person,
Modifying depending on the goals and objectives of the
research. Strict adherence to the filling rules is required
anthropometric maps in order to avoid errors in further
processing of the received material.
2. BASIC GROWTH REGULATIONS
AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
The main feature of childhood and adolescence is the constantly ongoing process of growth and development, during which
the gradual formation of an adult is carried out. V
during this process, quantitative indicators increase
the body (the size of individual organs and the whole body), as well as the improvement of the work of organs and physiological systems, which ensure the possibility of normal life
a mature person, the main points of which are labor
activity and the birth of healthy offspring. From how it grows and
a child and a teenager develops, his future largely depends and,
therefore, this process from the moment the child is born to the completion of the growth and development processes must be under the constant supervision of doctors, parents and teachers.
Normal growth and development of a child and adolescent
indicates a favorable state of his body, the absence of pronounced harmful influences and, therefore, physical development
at this age is one of the leading signs of health, on which other indicators depend.
The level of achieved physical development is necessarily assessed by a doctor during a medical examination and is
a necessary criterion for the overall assessment of the child's health
and a teenager.
The number of indicators that determine the physical development of a person
big enough. For the purposes of medical and pedagogical practice, relatively easily measurable indicators are most often used, called somatometric: body length,
body weight, chest circumference. On external examination of the body
somatoscopic indicators are revealed: the shape of the chest,
back, feet, posture, muscle condition, fat deposition, skin elasticity, signs of puberty. To assess the functional capabilities of the body, physiometric
indicators - vital capacity of the lungs (VC), the force of compression of the hand
hands (dynamometry).
All these indicators are taken into account when assessing the physical development of children and adolescents, which should be carried out in a comprehensive manner, using all the indicated indicators.
For a correct assessment of the physical development of a child, it is necessary to know the basic laws and age characteristics of the course of this process, which makes it possible to understand and explain the activity
individual organs and systems, their relationship, functioning
the whole body of the child at different age periods and its
unity with the external environment.
The human life cycle is conventionally divided into three stages: maturation, mature age and aging. Draw a chronological border
the transition of an organism from one stage to another can be based on the study of the characteristics of its growth and development, interaction with the environment (including social) environment.
The maturation stage is characterized, first of all, by the achievement
sexual maturity, the ability of the body and the ability to perform reproductive function, which ensures the preservation of the species.
The biological meaning of the individual growth and development of any living creature, including humans, lies in the preservation of the species.
However, it would be a mistake to judge a person's maturity only by the degree of sexual development. An equally important sign is the readiness of the individual to carry out social functions, work and
creative activity, and this is the social and social meaning
its development. Puberty occurs by the age of 13-15.
Labor maturity occurs much later, usually by the end of school or VET, i.e. at 17-18 years old. She only comes with
approaching the completion of physical development and the acquisition
experience of social and social activity.
Currently, there is a discrepancy in the timing of the onset of puberty and labor maturity. If puberty in modern conditions is observed somewhat earlier, then labor maturity in modern production, requiring a sufficiently high level of training, on the contrary, is later. Therefore, the chronological boundary of the full maturation of the organism and the onset of maturity
only the process of full maturation and growth, but also accumulate
necessary knowledge, moral foundations are formed, i.e. opportunities are created for a person to perform both biological and social functions.
At the entire stage of maturation (from the moment of birth to full maturity), the growth and development of the organism proceed in accordance with the objective
existing laws, the main of which are:
– uneven growth and development rates,
– non-simultaneous growth and development of individual organs and systems (heterochronism),
– sex-related growth and development (sexual dimorphism),
– genetic conditioning of growth and development,
– conditionality of growth and development by factors of the environment of children,
– historical development trends (acceleration, deceleration).
Uneven growth and development rates. The processes of growth and development are continuous, progressive, but
their rate has a non-linear relationship with age. The younger
organism, the more intensive the processes of growth and development. This is the most
clearly reflect the indicators of daily energy consumption. The child has
1-3 months daily energy consumption per 1 kg of body weight per day is
110-120 kcal, in a one-year-old - 90-100 kcal. In subsequent periods
a child's life a decrease in the relative daily energy expenditure
continues.
Uneven growth and development are evidenced by changes
body lengths of children and adolescents. In the first year of life, the length of the newborn's body increases by 47%, in the second - by 13%, in the third - by 9%. At the age of 4-7 years, body length annually increases by 5-7%, and at the age of 8-10 years - only by 3%.
During puberty, there is a growth spurt, at the age of
16-17 years old there is a decrease in the rate of its growth, and at 18-20 years
the increase in body length practically stops.
Changes in body weight, chest circumference, as well as the development of individual organs and systems as a whole, occur unevenly.
The unevenness of the rate of growth and development of the organism at the stage of maturation is a general pattern. However, during this period, some individual characteristics also appear. There are individuals whose pace of development is accelerated, and in terms of maturity they are ahead of their chronological (calendar) age.
The opposite is also possible. In this regard, the term “age
child ”should be specified: chronological or biological.
Difference between chronological and biological age
can be up to 5 years old. Children with a slow biological pace
development can be 10-20%. Such children are most often identified
before entering school or while studying.
The lag in biological age in children is manifested by a decrease in most indicators of physical development compared to
with middle-aged and combined with more frequent deviations in
musculoskeletal system, nervous and cardiovascular systems.
Schoolchildren with retarded biological development rate less
are active in the classroom. They have increased distractibility and
unfavorable type of change in working capacity. During the educational process, a more pronounced visual tension is revealed,
motor analyzer and cardiovascular system.
The most pronounced changes in performance and state
health is observed in children with a sharp lag in biological
age (difference 3 years or more).
The accelerated pace of the child's individual development leads to
ahead of biological age in comparison with chronological. “Outstripping” development occurs less frequently in groups of students than “lagging” development. Accelerated development is observed more often in girls.
Schoolchildren with an accelerated rate of individual development have a lower working capacity than children whose biological age corresponds to the calendar age. Among them there are more people suffering from hypertension and chronic tonsillitis, they have higher morbidity rates, and functional abnormalities are more often and more pronounced. The highest frequency of deviations from biological age is found among adolescents.
Thus, individual deviations in the growth and development rates of a child from middle-aged ones determine the discrepancy between the biological age and the chronological one, which, both in the case of advancing and especially lagging behind, requires attention from doctors and parents.
Criteria for biological age: level of skeletal ossification,
timing of teething and tooth change, the appearance of secondary genital
signs, the onset of menstruation, as well as morphological indicators of physical development (body length and its annual increase).
With age, the degree of information content of indicators of biological age changes. From 6 to 12 years of age, the main indicators of development are the number of permanent teeth (“dental age”) and body length. Between 11 and 15 years, the most informative indicators of the annual increase in body length, as well as the severity of secondary sexual characteristics and the age of onset
menstruation in girls.
At the age of 15 and later, a very important indicator of development becomes
the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, and indicators of body length and
development of teeth lose their informational content.
The level of ossification of the skeleton is determined using X-ray studies only in the presence of special medical
indications - with pronounced developmental disorders.
Non-simultaneous growth and development of individual organs and systems
(heterochronism).
Growth and development processes are uneven. Each age is characterized by certain morphological and functional features.
The child's body is considered as a whole, but the growth
and the development of its individual organs and systems does not occur simultaneously (heterochronously). Selective and accelerated maturation is provided due to those structural formations and functions that determine the survival of the organism.
In the first years of a child's life, it mainly increases
the mass of the brain and spinal cord, which cannot be considered accidental:
there is an intensive formation of the functional systems of the body.
Through the nervous system, the body is connected with the external
environment: mechanisms of adaptation to constantly changing
conditions, optimal conditions are created for receiving information and
works of integrative actions. In contrast to this
lymphatic tissue does not develop in the first years of life, its growth
and formation occurs at the age of 10-12 years. Only after 12 years
there is an intensive development of the genitals and the formation of reproductive function.
The growth rates of individual body parts are also different. During
growth, the proportions of the body change and the child from a relatively
large-headed, short-legged and long-bodied gradually
turns into a small-headed, long-legged and short-bodied.
Thus, the intensive development and final formation of individual organs and systems do not occur in parallel.
There is a certain sequence of growth and development of certain
structural formations and functions. Moreover, during the period of intensive growth and development of the functional system, its
hypersensitivity to the action of specific factors.
During the period of intensive brain development, there is an increased sensitivity of the body to a lack of protein in food; during development
speech and motor functions - to speech communication; during development
motor skills - to motor activity.
The ability of the child's body to specific activities, its resistance to various environmental factors
are determined by the level of maturation of the corresponding functional systems. Thus, the associative parts of the cerebral cortex, which ensure its integral function and readiness for learning at school, mature gradually in the course of the child's individual development by the age of 6-7 years. In this regard, the forced education of children at an early age may affect their subsequent development.
A system that transports oxygen to the tissues,
also develops gradually and reaches maturity by the age of 16-17.
With this in mind, hygienists prescribe the restriction of physical
loads for children. Only in adolescence, upon reaching morphological and functional maturity of the cardiovascular and respiratory
systems allow long-term execution of large physical
loads and the development of endurance.
Thus, the functional readiness for individual types
educational, labor and sports activities are not formed simultaneously, therefore they should be standardized differentially
and activities, and the impact of environmental factors on
various analyzers or functional systems.
Hygiene standard throughout the entire maturation stage
the organism changes in accordance with the change in age-related sensitivity to the action of the factor. Heterochronous growth and development
individual organs and systems is the scientific basis for differentiated regulation of environmental factors and activities of children and adolescents.
Sexual dependence of growth and development (sexual dimorphism).
Sexual dimorphism manifests itself in the features of the metabolic process, the rate of growth and development of individual functional systems
and the body as a whole. So, boys before puberty
have higher anthropometric indicators. During puberty, this ratio changes: girls in terms of length and body weight, chest circumference surpass their peers. There is a crossover of the age curves of these indicators.
At 15 years of age, the intensity of growth in boys increases, and boys
in terms of their anthropometric indicators, they are again ahead of girls. The second intersection of the curves is formed. This double crossing of curves of age-related changes in indicators of physical development is characteristic of normal physical development.
At the same time, there is an unequal rate of development of many
functional systems, especially muscular, respiratory and cardiovascular. For example, the strength of the hand or muscles - the extensors of the back in boys of all ages is higher than that of their peers.
There are differences not only in physical performance, but
and in psychophysiological indicators.
And so, along with the patterns common to both sexes, there are differences in the rates, timing and rates of growth and development of boys and girls.
Sexual dimorphism is taken into account in the regulation of physical activity, the organization of the educational process. Sexual
differences in the growth and development of the body are important when
vocational guidance of schoolchildren, sports selection and
training of young athletes.
Changes in body length in boys (1) and girls (2), depending on
age develops the concept of the correspondence, first of all, of training loads to the functional capabilities of a growing organism and the expediency of its training in order to protect and strengthen health.
In accordance with this, standards are being developed in our country
activities on the basis of the age-sex principle and recommendations are given for a reasonable training of a growing organism in order to promote an increase in its reserve abilities and a more complete use of the physical capabilities of the organism inherent in nature.
The role of genetic, hereditary factors in the growth process and
development.
The growth of a child is a programmed process of increasing the length and
body weight, inseparable from its development, the formation of functional systems. The genetic program provides the life cycle
individual development.
Currently, more than 50 genes have been isolated, located almost
in all chromosomes (except sex) and called protooncogenes.
They control the processes of normal growth and differentiation.
cells.
The synthesis of all hormones and factors that regulate the growth of proteins that bind hormones, as well as cellular receptors for various hormones and factors, is under gene control.
The most important manifestation of gene regulation is the body's ability to stabilize the growth process and return to a given program in cases where physical development is disturbed under the influence of any external factors (starvation, infection, etc.).
K. Waddington (1957) defined the specified property of an organism as
sewerage (entering the program) or homeoresis. Homeoresis
manifests itself, for example, in the fact that premature babies, in terms of developmental indicators, catch up with their peers by the age of 3 years (accelerated, or compensatory, growth).
Genes that control the process of growth and development of a child determine the age-related sensitivity of the receptor apparatus of cells to
various hormones, mediators and factors, and through them the intensity and age characteristics of metabolism and energy.
In the process of growth, gene regulation of metabolism and energy
supplemented by more and more perfect neuroendocrine regulation,
linking the genetic program of development with environmental conditions.
Due to the changing mutual influence of gene and neuroendocrine regulation, each period of development is characterized by special
the rate of physical growth, age-related physiological and behavioral reactions.
The growth and physical development of children is influenced by factors
external environment: the state of the atmospheric air, the composition of the drinking
water, the nature of food, the amount of solar radiation, etc. Influence
natural environmental factors on the physical development of children
regulated by the impact of social conditions of life. Most
this was clearly shown in studies that showed a decrease in
the level of physical development of children and adolescents during the Great
World War II.
The harsh living conditions during the war had a significant
influence on the processes of growth and development. They caused not only a decrease in the absolute values of individual indicators of physical
development, but also a change in the nature of sex differences. Curves
the length and weight of the boys and girls were atypical, not
had a characteristic double cross.
The growth and development of children can also be influenced by certain environmental factors, in particular drinking water. For example, with an increased content of stable strontium in drinking water in children, there is a noticeable lag in the development of bone tissue, there is a tendency to a decrease in body weight and length, chest circumference.
It was found that air pollution with various chemical substances adversely affects the growth and
physical development of the younger generation. 35% of children in cities
with a developed chemical industry, there is a delay and disharmony of development.
The unstable dependence of the growth and development process on
genetic and social factors. The increase in body length at the age of 4-6 and 10-15 years is determined mainly by a genetic factor. The body weight of children and adolescents is more susceptible to
the action of environmental factors. This indicator is mainly determined by the quantitative and qualitative composition of food, the regimen
nutrition, physical activity, organization of physical education.
The type of higher nervous activity, the strength and mobility of the nerves
processes are determined by genetic factors.
Development of motor skills (strength, speed, endurance), activity
autonomic nervous system (pulse rate, minute volume
circulation, frequency and depth of breathing, VC, reaction to
physical activity, temperature effects, etc.) are subject to
the influence of environmental factors and therefore better amenable to regulation when
targeted impact on the child's body.
The processes of growth and development are subject to certain biological laws and, at the same time, are determined by environmental conditions. In the complex interaction of environmental factors and natural inclinations, the individual development of the child is carried out.
This must be taken into account when developing preventive
measures aimed at improving growth, harmonious development, protecting and strengthening the health of the younger generation.
Historians, archaeologists and anthropologists have long based
numerous studies have found that physical development
people in different historical epochs was not the same. Our
the ancestors in some periods either differed from the modern man in great growth, then they were inferior to him. This is judged by the fossil remains.
human skeleton and clothing items. So the dimensions of the found equipment of medieval knights allow us to conclude that their
growth was significantly inferior to the growth of modern men. This information,
as well as carried out from the end of the nineteenth century. to the present day, systematic observations of the physical development of children and adolescents
made it possible to identify what was happening from the beginning of the twentieth century. accelerating the pace
growth and development of the body of children and adolescents, called
"Acceleration" (from Lat. Acceleratio). Its essence consisted in the fact that the stage of biological maturation of the generations of the twentieth century completed several
earlier than the previous ones. Acceleration of the development of children was observed with
the earliest age.
In the biology of modern man over the past century, in addition to the acceleration of development, other changes have occurred:
life expectancy, the reproductive period has become longer and
definitive (final) body sizes, the morbidity structure has changed. Life-changing changes
person, received the name "secular trend" (seculartrend -
secular trend). In this common secular trend, acceleration
growth and development was an integral part and covered only the period of human maturation.
The acceleration of growth and development was most clearly manifested in adolescence. Such changes were observed not only in ours, but
and in other countries. In the USA and European countries in the middle of the XX century. length
the body of children aged 13-15 years increased on average by 2.5 cm per
decade.
Observational data on the growth and development of Moscow schoolchildren showed that the acceleration resulted in an increase in growth
and body weight of adolescents by the end of the 80s compared with the 60s. So
boys and girls by the age of 17 became taller than their peers by almost
by 2 cm. The body weight of 15-year-old boys increased by almost 3 kg, and so on.
Structure and function are dialectically the same. Hence,
morphological manifestations of developmental acceleration could not help but
accompany functional. The clearest moment in the puberty of the female body is the first menstruation.
(menarche). The rest of the signs are associated with the appearance of menarche. Have
young men about the development of sexual function can be judged by the first
emissions. However, the occurrence of the latter is poorly recorded.
memory, and therefore the age at which they begin is not identified with sufficient certainty.
Girls are significantly ahead of boys in terms of sexual development.
All researchers noted that the appearance of menarche from generation to
generation in the twentieth century shifted to an earlier and earlier date.
So, in the 50s, the first menstruation in girls was observed for 2 years.
earlier than in the first decade of the century (on average, respectively, 16
and 14 years) and in subsequent years, the average age of onset of menarche
decreased - over 20 years, this decline was 2.2 years.
Deceleration of physical development is accompanied by a slowdown in the timing of puberty. Over the past 10 years, the age of appearance
first menstruation in Moscow schoolgirls increased by about
by 3 months and approached the level of the 60s. In the 90s age
menarche was 13 years 3 months, whereas in the 70s it was equal to
12 years 7 months.
The indicators of physical development are closely related to the functional, in particular to the strength capabilities of the organism.
Study of the grip strength of the hands (wrist dynamometry)
among Moscow schoolchildren over the past decades
showed a decrease in their power capabilities, which began in the 70s
years. So, young men 17 years old in the early 90s had muscle strength
10 kg less than their peers in the early 70s, girls of 17 years lagged behind during this period by 7 kg. Lower rates
muscle strength is observed in adolescents of almost all ages.
The question of the reasons leading to the acceleration of the physical development of children (acceleration) and the subsequent deceleration of this
development is constantly a subject of debate among scientists.
Many hypotheses are put forward, but none of them can
comprehensively explain the epoch-making shifts in the rate of growth and development of children. Among the reasons that caused acceleration, at one time
put forward such as the effect on the body of various kinds of radiation (solar, space, electromagnetic), a change in the complex of environmental and social conditions of life (an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere associated with an increase in production; urbanization processes; change in the nature of nutrition), etc. - apparently, acceleration and deceleration that replaces it is
a consequence of some general tendency towards cyclical changes in
human biology, the reasons and patterns of manifestation of which
remains to be unraveled.
Continuous ongoing process of growth and development
a child and adolescent, which, moreover, has an uneven character,
since in it periods of especially rapid growth and development are replaced
relatively calm periods, as well as non-simultaneity
development of individual physiological systems (heterochronism) leads to the fact that at different age stages, the child's body and
an adolescent possesses a special complex of anatomical and physiological properties that determine the level of biological development achieved and the capacity (working capacity) of the body.
For the correct organization of the educational and educational process,
rationing of loads of various nature must be taken into account
functional capabilities of the child, which are based on his
physical development.
For the convenience of organizing educational work, which basically cannot be carried out with every child
individually, it becomes necessary to unite children into homogeneous age groups, which required the development of scientific principles of age periodization. Of great practical importance, among other things, such a periodization consists in the correct determination of the age of admission of the child to a nursery school, kindergarten, school, determination of the possibilities of starting labor activity, etc.
Age periodization is based on the division of childhood into
several periods characterized by general physiological
features. One of the first scientifically based periodizations
in our country was proposed at the beginning of the twentieth century, since then
as science developed, it was supplemented and revised.
Age periods change more often in the first years of life.
The neonatal period lasts only 10 days, since the type of physiological reactions characteristic of it is noted within a very short time. However, the older the child is, the larger the segment of life can be combined in the age period. So, adolescence for boys lasts from 13 to 16, and for girls - from 12 to 15 years. This division is based on a purely biological principle: this period covers the time from the onset of puberty
until the moment when a young organism acquires the ability to effective reproductive function, and is also called transitional -
pubertal.
Attention should also be paid to the fact that the time boundaries of adolescence (17 years old - 21 years old) are also differentiated depending on gender. Girls and girls enter these developmental periods a year earlier and complete them earlier. This is due to the influence of gender on the intensity of growth and development.
In our country, age-related
periodization based on social principles. This
the periodization scheme to a certain extent reflects the state
policy in relation to the younger generation, the prevailing
experience in teaching and educational work for children and adolescents, the health care system and some other social aspects.
3. FEATURES OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
AND FUNCTIONAL POSSIBILITIES
MODERN TEENS 15-17 YEARS
For legislative decisions at the state, health care, public level, timely and
clear information about the physical development of the child population. This
information can be obtained only with a unified
individual and group evaluation of data obtained mainly
on the study of organized children's groups.
Surveys of Moscow schoolchildren conducted by the Research Institute
hygiene and health protection of children and adolescents GU SC ZD RAMS in
1992-1997 and 1998-2004, (more than 3500 students), revealed a clear
a tendency to asthenization of the physique of the younger generation
even in the most recent years, to an increase in all age and sex
groups of the proportion of persons with a deficit in body weight. Average
the proportion of children and adolescents whose physical development can be regarded as normal decreased over the specified period from 79.6% to 74.4%
among boys and from 82.8% to 74.7% among girls. The number of underweight adolescents increased from 13.6% to 14.5% among
boys, from 12.7% to 18.4% among girls. Differentiated
the analysis showed that this increase is most pronounced at the age of 15-17 and indicates a change in the average weight-height
ratios during the period of completion of growth processes and the formation of the final size of the body.
Considering the state of physical development of senior students
classes of Moscow schools in comparison with the past decades
we found that the relative underweight in Moscow
ninth-graders in the 1970s was noted in 5.6% of young men and in
11.8% among girls, in the 1980s it reached 12.3% and 11.6%, respectively,
and by the beginning of the new century amounted to 13.9% and 17.2%.
This process is currently ongoing. So the proportion of persons with
body weight deficiency among young men examined in recent years (2003-2004) by the time of graduation is diagnosed with
in almost every fourth case, among girls - in every sixth.
Characteristics of the physical development of the younger generation
is impossible without considering shifts in the level of biological, in particular, sexual maturity, a fairly reliable indicator of which is, as you know, menarche - the age at which girls
the first regulations appear. Our analysis showed that
only in the last decade of the twentieth century, the average age at which girls have their first regula has increased by about
3 months and is now in the Moscow region 13 years 3 months.
The proportion of girls with relatively early periods of menarche (the first
menstruation up to 12.5 years) decreased by more than 1.5 times (from 31.2% to
19.8%), menstrual cycle in modern girls in 18.3% of cases
established only by the age of 15-16. Assessment of the level of puberty of modern adolescent girls, carried out according to the standards
development of secondary sex characteristics developed in the 1970s
years, showed that among 14-15-year-old schoolgirls in 32.1% of cases, and
among 16-17-year-olds in 22.1% there is a relative lag,
indicating a slowdown in the rate of their maturation compared to
with the same age as the past.
The revealed shifts in the timing of menarche are statistically real.
(R<0,01) и в основном также согласуются с данными, полученными в Европейском регионе.
The indicators of physical development are closely related to the functional, in particular, the strength capabilities of the growing organism,
and the closeness of this connection changes with age, as evidenced, in particular, by the results of observations of the dynamics of the values of force
compression of the hand in adolescents of the older age group, examined by us in 1974/1975. (Yu.A. Yampolskaya, 2003).
Based on this, it can be assumed that changes in the physical development of senior schoolchildren over the decades under consideration
led to the appearance of certain shifts in their power capabilities.
The fact that modern youth is becoming weaker, that its representatives jump worse, run badly, fewer times they can
push up is known from many publications. They associate a decrease in power capabilities with a lack of interest in active sports and tourism, a switch of interests to all kinds of entertainment, the range of which is currently significant
expanded. However, the persistence of this decline and the decrease
the dispersion spread of the options allows us to talk about more serious reasons, among which, perhaps, an important role is played by
deterioration of the environment.
Thus, in a state of physical development of modern
the younger generation in recent years, a number of negative trends have been revealed, including an increase in the proportion of people with a
body weight, "aging" of the timing of puberty, decrease
power capabilities. Discovered growth and development trends
children and adolescents of Moscow as a whole reflect the general patterns inherent in children of large cities of Russia (Maksimova T.M.,
1999). In our country, deceleration coincided with a period of unfavorable socio-economic changes: a drop in living standards,
deterioration of the environment, change in life guidelines, reform of education and health care systems.
The most important element of monitoring the health of the younger generation is monitoring growth and development.
adolescents on the verge of adulthood with its social
requirements, increased physical and mental stress.
The success of their adaptation to the conditions of modern life will decisively determine the future reproductive and labor potential of the country, its development and the level of national security.
The identified trends require careful consideration,
including, in particular, monitoring the physical development of adolescents studying in different educational institutions, the formation
"Risk groups" of certain developmental deviations, their timely correction and recovery.
The level of puberty was assessed by age and sex
standards based on the severity of the main components of the sexual formula at a particular calendar age.
The following variants of puberty (biological development) were established: a) correspondence to the calendar age (sexual
the formula corresponds to the age norm); b) accelerated development (the lead over the age norm is 1 year or more); c) slow
development (lagging behind the age norm is 1 year or more).
Comparative characteristics of the physical development of students,
students in different educational institutions, involves a choice
groups of adolescents that are identical in calendar age.
The study of physical development in pediatrics and childhood hygiene
serves as a basis for solving issues related to treatment and prophylactic measures, the development of age-sex standards for educational, labor, sports activities of the younger generation.
Taking into account current trends in growth and development
for adolescents, it is extremely important to develop standardized standards for the main indicators of physical development,
with the help of which it is easy enough to carry out an individual assessment, to form "risk groups" for the most significant
deviations for targeted prevention or treatment, and
also to establish the reasons for the violation of the adaptive potential of their body during school years.
The revealed features of the physical status of adolescents studying in educational institutions of various types undoubtedly require
targeted monitoring by medical personnel
schools and clinics, which includes an assessment of the level of morphological maturity and physical development of each student according to adequate assessment tables, as prescribed by the Order of the Ministry of Health
Russia No. 81 of 15.03.02 "On the conduct of the All-Russian clinical examination of children in 2002" and "Instructional and methodological materials
on the organization and monitoring of physical development and
physical fitness of children, adolescents and youth ”(2002).
Deviations in physical development due to lack of body weight,
excess body weight or short stature, allowing the student to be assigned to the II health group, should be clarified during an in-depth examination by a pediatrician of a polyclinic or a pediatric endocrinologist to make a diagnosis, identify the reasons for the deviation and correct it.
An important indicator of a child's health is his physical development. To study physical development, anthropometric research methods are used, which make it possible to determine quantitative and qualitative indicators of development, to develop standards for the physical development of children and adolescents for each age, gender and region of residence:
1) somatometric - measurement of height, mass, chest circumference;
2) somatoscopic - determination of the development of the skeleton, the shape of the spine, chest, legs and feet, posture, the development of muscles and subcutaneous fat, the degree of sexual development, the appearance and changes of teeth;
3) physiometric - determination of the vital capacity of the lungs, hand strength, respiration and heart rate, blood pressure, and others Anatomy and physiology. Age features of the structure and function of the body - http://www.anatomius.ru/razvitie-organizma-cheloveka.
At 9 - 10 years old for girls and at 11 - 12 years old for boys, a new and crucial period of life begins - adolescence.
Adolescence and adolescence are sometimes united by one name - puberty. It ends in boys by the age of 18-19, in girls by the age of 16-17. By this time, the proportions of the body are fully formed, the growth and ossification of the skeleton is completed.
During puberty in young men, body weight increases by an average of 34 kg, height - by 35 cm, breastbone circumference 25 cm; in girls, respectively, by 25 kg, 28 cm and 18 cm. These changes are associated with the intense activity of systems and organs that regulate growth processes and ensure the normal functioning of the body. At the same time, the regulatory systems themselves (primarily the nervous and endocrine systems) continue their own development and formation.
The maturation of the body is not an easy process, it does not always go smoothly. That is why adolescents require close (but not annoying) attention of their parents, constant monitoring, and sometimes, if individual links of the complex chain of development and formation of the organism do not "work," and the direct intervention of a doctor. At the age of 10, the physical development of boys and girls is about the same, but at the age of 11, girls are ahead of their peers in height (by 1.6 cm) and weight (by 1.7 kg). At the age of 12, girls are ahead of boys in all respects: in body length (by 3.1 cm), weight (by 2.9 kg), circumference and chest excursions (by 4.5 and 0.7 cm). At the age of 13, this difference increases even more.
However, at the age of 14, all indicators of physical development become higher in boys. These differences are due to the fact that girls enter adolescence 2 years earlier than boys, they experience the so-called pubertal "growth spurt" earlier, that is, a significant acceleration in height and weight, in girls it is observed at the age of 10.5 up to 13 years old, in boys - from 12.5 to 15. Puberty "growth spurt" precedes the onset of puberty. There is a development and increase in the activity of the endocrine glands, genitals. Puberty occurs in girls at 12.5-13 years old, in boys - at 14-15 years old. At this age, girls start menstruating, boys have wet dreams.
In adolescents, the anatomical development of the nervous system is completed. By the age of 13-14, the formation of the motor analyzer ends, which is of great importance for the formation of endurance, dexterity, necessary in labor activity.
Endocrine-induced skeletal muscle growth has a significant effect on muscle strength. So, if at 10 years old boys squeeze a wrist dynamometer with a force of 16 kg, then at 15 years old this figure is 35 kg; in girls, hand strength increases over the same period from an average of 12.5 to 28 kg. It should be noted that in girls, muscle strength reaches its maximum development by the age of 15. The angularity, clumsiness and awkwardness characteristic of adolescents (which is explained by the faster growth of bones and muscles in length and the temporary lag in their development in thickness) disappear in boys after 15 years, in girls - somewhat earlier.
Teens have a rapidly growing heart. Perhaps, no system of the body in adolescence and adolescence has such high demands as the cardiovascular system. The weight of the heart doubles from 10 to 16 years old, and the volume increases by about 2.4 times. The heart muscle (myocardium) also changes, it becomes more powerful, it is able to throw more blood into the vessels when it contracts. At the age of 9 to 17, the stroke volume of the heart, that is, the amount of blood ejected by the heart in one contraction, increases in boys from 37 to 70 ml, and in girls from 35 to 60 ml. The resting heart rate gradually decreases. At the age of 15, the pulse for boys is 70, and for girls - 72 beats / min, by the age of 18 it decreases to 62 and 70 beats / min, that is, it becomes the same as in adults. However, the decrease in heart rate is uneven, and this is due to the rate of growth and puberty.
For example, at the same age (15 years) in rapidly developing girls, the cardiovascular system works in approximately the same way as in adult women, and in their peers who are lagging behind in growth and development, the nature of the heart is almost the same as among younger schoolgirls. The same is observed in boys. Consequently, the first feature of the adolescent's circulatory system is its close relationship with the growth and maturation rates of the whole organism.
In a rapidly growing organism, the development of the cardiovascular system does not always keep up with the general rate of development, and the increase in heart mass sometimes lags behind the increase in the weight of the whole body. That is why sometimes tall young men and women complain of weakness, slight fatigue, especially during physical exertion, there is a tendency to fainting when overheating or a sharp change in body position. When symptoms of heart weakness appear, associated with a mismatch in growth and an increase in the size of the heart, some parents regard them as a manifestation of heart disease, try to transfer their son or daughter to the most sparing regimen, and protect them from all kinds of physical exertion. This is a big mistake. The only medicine that can bring into line the capabilities of the circulatory system and the increased needs of the adolescent's body are systematic exercise, sports, and work. Unfortunately, now the majority of modern children, adolescents, young men (and adults as well) have the main problem of underloading muscles, inactivity.
Often, young men and women, embarrassed by their weakness and awkwardness, completely stop doing physical education. As a result, the so-called drip heart is formed, which, if the teenager does not start physical education on time, will not increase in the future.
In the developing circulatory system, there is often a discrepancy between the lumen of the vessels through which blood is expelled from the heart and the increased capacity of the heart. As a result, blood pressure increases. So, if boys and girls 10 years old have blood pressure equal to 95/55, then by the age of 17 it rises to 120/65 in boys and to 115/60 in girls.
The third feature of the work of the cardiovascular system in adolescents is a temporary violation of its nervous regulation. This is due to the restructuring of the activity of the endocrine and nervous systems and is expressed by a disorder of the heart rhythm, an increase or decrease in the heart rate. In boys and girls, developing harmoniously, such disorders are not long-lasting and quickly disappear without any treatment. But, despite this, any deviation in the activity of the heart, especially changes in blood pressure values, should not escape the attention of parents. Indeed, most often they occur in weakened children suffering from chronic diseases of the nasopharynx (tonsillitis, sinusitis, pharyngitis) and oral cavity (especially dental caries). And these diseases are not at all harmless and further affect primarily the cardiovascular system.
It is also necessary to know that a large mental load in combination with a sedentary lifestyle leads to a dysregulation of the tone of blood vessels, which causes hypotonic and hypertensive states, which further develop into hypotension or hypertension. Such an unfavorable outcome can be prevented by a reasonable daily routine, a clear mode of work and rest, and most importantly - by systematic physical education and sports.
At the international congress on school hygiene, it was established that the total daily study load of schoolchildren should not exceed 7 - 8 hours (with a six-day work week, this is even higher than the work load of adults). However, the practical workload of students during the working day is much higher, especially in high school. As for the younger schoolchildren, a 7-8-hour working day is too much workload for them.
One of the key issues of the modern generation is the acceleration of the growth and development of children and adolescents, that is, the problem of acceleration.
The term "acceleration" refers to the acceleration of the growth and development of children and adolescents, but compared with previous generations.
According to modern concepts, a growing organism is a complex self-regulating system, the development of which is determined by its genetic program. The growth of each child, the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the whole organism, individual organs and systems, the order and rate of their maturation, individual properties, adaptive capabilities at all stages of life are determined by the child's hereditary constitution.
The acceleration of growth and development is most significant during adolescence. Modern 14-year-old boys "grew up" in comparison with their peers of the 1920s from 146.4 to 162.6 cm, that is, by 16.2 cm, their weight increased from 34.3 to 51.2 kg, in girls respectively, from 146.7 to 160.9 cm and from 39 to 51.3 kg. In adolescents, they moved to an earlier age and puberty.
Moreover, the timing of puberty is not significantly influenced by racial characteristics, nor the climate, nor the geographic area of residence. The widespread belief in earlier puberty of southern peoples, which is sometimes found even in the medical literature, is in fact an unconfirmed hypothesis. Socio-economic conditions and dietary habits are essential in this regard.
Acceleration creates a number of problems in education, especially for adolescents and young men. If in the 30s and 40s the attainment of puberty coincided with the beginning of labor activity, now the situation has changed significantly: young men and women, already fully formed in the physical and neuropsychic relation, find themselves in the position of children for a very long time. Contradictions arose between accelerated physical maturation and relatively belated social maturity.
But although in terms of height and weight they are not inferior to adults, the degree of development of all body systems has not yet "reached" the adult level: the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular systems are still in the stage of formation. There are almost no functional reserves, since the processes of growth and maturation themselves require a significant tension of all systems, high energy consumption Khripkova A.G., Antropova M.B, Farber D.A. Age physiology and school hygiene - M. Enlightenment, 1990 ..