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The history of the formation and development of documentation support for management in Russia

Introduction

The need to create documents arose simultaneously with the advent of writing. Moreover, they believe that it was precisely the need to create various documents (agreements, contracts, etc.) that led to the emergence of writing as a way of presenting information not only of personal, but also of state significance. Already in the V century. BC the ancient Roman plebs demanded the introduction of clear "written" laws. The creation of laws and regulations fixed on paper was also the main requirement of medieval uprisings. When laws appeared, the clerk was required to have absolute accuracy of wording and impeccable knowledge of the form of presentation, otherwise the document would lose its force.

With the development of writing, documents have become a way of communicating and transmitting information.

“The creation of ministries has led to the emergence of a huge paperwork. Reports, reports, circulars and orders have now become one of the main management tools. As a result, the staff of officials has grown. The invisible, but powerful enough power of the chancellery and bureaucracy, characteristic of the history of the 19th century, arose. "

The relevance of these words from the monograph “Russian history. From Catherine the Great to Alexander II "(authors I. Zaichkin and I. Pochkaev) is obvious and characteristic of the history of office work in the 19th and 20th centuries.

New forms, organization and tasks of the central government bodies were fixed by the manifesto on September 8, 1802, by which the collegiums were transformed into ministries.

V.Klyuchevsky wrote in the “Course of Russian history”: “The former collegia are subordinate to ministries as their departments; the main difference between the new central government bodies was their sole authority: each department was governed by a minister instead of the previous collegial presence. "

XIX century. characterized by an abundance of new types of government documents. Many of the older documents have been given new names.

Thus, legislative and regulatory acts of state authorities began to be formalized by decrees, instructions, regulations, protocols, etc.

The number of forms of "correspondence" increased: letters, reports, news, demands, reports, petitions, etc. Much attention was paid to the unification of documents, that is, instructions were prepared with a statement on the points on the preparation of documents in a certain form. For a number of documents, such as diplomas, patents, etc., general templates were created, according to which they were to be drawn up.

At the end of the 19th century, from abroad, “technical means”, as we now call them, began to flow into Russia from abroad: typewriters, duplicating machines (hectographs, steklographs, chapirographs), and stenography developed.

Varadinov N.V., Gastev A.K., Kerzhentsev P.M., Bogdanov A.A., Vitke N.A., Byzov L.A., Drezen E.K., Burdyanskiy worked on the problems of improving and rationalizing office work. I.M., Rozmirovich E.F. and etc.

The problem of our work is office work in Russia in the 19th - 20th centuries.

The purpose of our course work: to analyze the methodological and theoretical literature on the problem of research, to identify the main features of the rationalization of office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. Analyze the methodological and theoretical literature on the research problem.

2. Identify the main stages in the development of office work in Russia.

3. To identify the characteristic features of the rationalization of office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

1. Formation of documentation support for management in Russia

office work document flow ministerial

1.1 The emergence of office work in Russia

The name "office work" has been preserved from pre-revolutionary Russia. The history of state institutions in tsarist Russia testifies to how the state apparatus grew step by step, the bureaucracy and bureaucracy multiplied, which played an important role in the life of the state.

In the work of officials in pre-revolutionary Russia, the writing of documents, as they said, and papers, and work with them, occupied the main place. Possessing tremendous power, officials used "papers" as a weapon to strengthen the state of landlords and capitalists. The tsarist bureaucracy was one of the pillars of the autocracy, being the main state machine of government. The office work in the institutions of tsarist Russia was distinguished by an extremely bureaucratic nature. Bureaucracy and red tape reigned in the institutions. Bribery flourished among officials. Often, cases were reviewed for years.

The concept and the word "office work" arose in the central institutions of the Moscow state - orders - several centuries ago (15th - 16th centuries). Then under the clerical work was understood the writing, consideration and solution of issues ("cases") in the order. Each case began by submitting a petition to the order (in the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries - a petition). She was joined by various inquiries, investigative documents, the decision of the order and other materials. All made up a "case" for this "production", otherwise - his "office work". The set of cases was also called office work.

In the eighteenth century. the rules of conducting office work have found a detailed reflection in the legislation. These rules were formulated especially in detail in the General Regulations (1720). The instructions of the General Regulations of the tsarist bureaucracy were revered as an immutable law. To a large extent, he retained his strength until the fall of tsarism.

But also the General Regulations and subsequent legislation of the 19th and early 20th centuries. under the clerical work was understood mainly the order of written processing of cases, as well as correspondence.

Office work, as a system for documenting the most diverse aspects of the activities of state institutions, developed in several directions and was represented by several documentation systems.

So, already in the orders, a system for documenting administrative activities, or administrative clerical work, is clearly distinguished. Managerial, administrative activities take place in every institution - large, small, central and local. Without the administration, which manages the work of the institution, it cannot function. Because of this, administrative proceedings were the most widespread. Almost in parallel with the administrative office work, the system of accounting documentation, at first accounting, and then statistical, developed as an independent system. Separate documentation systems have emerged in the field of military, judicial and diplomatic activities. All these documentation systems are called special.

The development of special documentation systems further intensified. Thus, commercial ("business") correspondence acquired great importance in tsarist Russia. It is widespread in trade, industrial enterprises and partially penetrated into government institutions.

1.2 Order office work

At the end of the fifteenth century. the first orders appear - the central bodies of state power in charge of individual branches of the princely administration, and the order houses - the local government bodies. The execution of orders made it possible to centralize the administration of the country. It was in the activities of these bodies that the work with documents was born, which was called the clerical office work.

The orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and court. With the complication of the tasks of the state apparatus, the number of orders grew. By the time of the transformations carried out by Peter I, there were more than 50 of them.

Of interest is the structure of the body of state power itself - the order:

LIFTING

MEDIUM HANDS

YOUNG

The order of drawing up the document in the order was as follows: at the direction of the clerk, the draft document - the "black letter" - was drawn up by the clerk of the "middle hand", the clerk was his "black", that is, corrected, and the young clerk "whitewashed", that is wrote cleanly. Belovik was checked against the draft, the “old” clerk “copied” the rewritten document, certified by his signature that it corresponded to the correct draft. Documents that have been “verified” were signed by clerks. The signature was stretched to the full width of the document in order to protect it from forgery. Orders could rightfully be called the cradle of bureaucracy: often documents passed through many instances, lingering for a long time unnecessarily from individual executors, before reaching their destination.

We inherited the word "red tape" from the clerical office work. The documents glued into columns with an average length of 50 - 80 m were wound on sticks in scrolls. The tapes were dragged while reading, hence the concept was born. Bribery and reverence for dignity flourished in the clerical office apparatus. Clerical operations such as registration of documents, storage, control over execution were also not developed. And yet, it was at this historical stage that the first system of working with documents was formed, the basic techniques and methods of creating, formatting and processing them were laid.

Thus, during this period, management did not constitute a harmonious system and was based on a system of "orders" - any circle of affairs was transferred to the jurisdiction of a certain person according to the degree of closeness and trust of the Grand Duke.

1.3 Collegiate record keeping system

To replace the outdated system of orders in 1717 - 1718. 12 collegia were created, each of which was in charge of a certain branch or sphere of government and was subordinate to the Senate. The structure of the collegiums was finally determined by the General Regulations of the State Collegia, signed by Peter I on February 27, 1720. This document describes in detail and in detail the functions of each division of the collegium. This includes a chapter on the structure and functions of the office, as well as a chapter on the secretary rank. High and strict requirements were imposed on the secretary.

Thus, the General Regulations of the State Collegia actually created an office and approved the post of secretary. February 27, 1720 can be considered the date of birth of the secretary position in Russia. In addition to the secretary, the office included: registrars, actuaries, archivists, horsemen, scribes, fiskoms. The General Regulations clearly define the rights, duties, limits of competence and even the mode of work of office workers.

During the period of collegiate office work, the foundations of organizing the accounting and storage of documents were laid, at the same time the name "archive" appeared for the first time. The General Regulations prescribed to have two archives - one common for all collegiums under the special jurisdiction of the collegium of foreign affairs and a financial one. Developing individual office-work operations for working with documents, collegiate office-work left its bureaucratic essence unchanged. Thus, the XVIII century. in the development of office work, it was characterized by the strengthening of legislative regulation of all aspects of the activities of the office and the institution as a whole, the formation and consolidation of the general administrative principles of the activities of institutions, and above all, the bureaucratic beginning.

2. Office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

2.1 The system of ministerial office work in the XIX - early XX centuries.

The beginning of the 19th century was marked by a new reform of public administration and office work, which affected mainly the upper level of government - higher and central institutions, and together with the reforms of Catherine II in the last quarter of the XVIII century. completed the formation of a system of central and local institutions.

The new system of government - ministerial, based on the principle of one-man management, originated in the depths of the old collegiate system: in the collegiums of the late 18th century. presidents had broader rights than before. The creation of ministries with solely managing ministers was necessary for a more flexible and efficient management system. The collegial principle of decision-making was not completely excluded from the new system: first, the collegiums were included in the newly created ministries; later, councils were created under the ministers, which had the status of a collegial advisory body. Nevertheless, the attitude to the ministers as to the sole executors of the will of the king and determined the office work of the ministries as executive.

The first ministries created by the manifesto of September 8, 1802 were: naval forces, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education, justice and, as a ministry, the State Treasury. Each minister was instructed to create an office and have a comrade (assistant). Simultaneously with the ministries, in 1802, the Committee of Ministers was established - the highest administrative institution that acted on a collegial basis and considered cases that went beyond the competence of a separate minister and required a joint agreed decision. A little later, on January 1, 1810, the State Council was created - the highest legislative institution. At the same time, a reform of the Senate was carried out, which becomes the highest court, also performing the function of overseeing the government apparatus.

Finally, the sole ministerial beginning won only with the publication on January 28, 1811 of the "General institution of ministries" - a legislative act that determined the entire system of the ministerial structure, including their office work and the system of relationships with other institutions and individuals. In accordance with this act, the number of ministries has increased and there have been some changes in the redistribution of affairs between them.

Ministers were appointed by the emperor himself and were responsible only to him. The principle of one-man management is the basis of the entire organization of ministries: directors who headed departments were directly subordinate to the minister, heads of departments - directors of departments, clerks - heads of departments. The Council of the Minister consisted of the heads of the main subdivisions and had the meaning of a body "for the consideration of cases requiring, according to their importance, their general consideration." In departments, the role of councils was played by the general presence of departments. The office of the minister was similar in structure and acted as a department; the offices of departments had a simpler internal structure: they were headed by the ruler of the office and had a staff of officials - a journalist, executor, treasurer, scribes, etc., their official and quantitative composition depended on the volume and content of cases. For example, if the departments were in charge of financial resources, the office included accounting offices or desks with the corresponding staff.

The "general institution of the ministries" introduced uniformity into the system of office work of the ministries: from the creation of documents to their archival storage. Special attention is paid to the order of "relations" (correspondence) of ministries with other institutions.

The content of the "General Institution of Ministries" indicates that its authors quite clearly distinguished two aspects of office work: the forms of documents according to which office work is carried out (an independent term was widely used to denote this activity in the 19th century - writing), and the movement of documents and cases ("the order of the course of affairs"), realizing at the same time that in the practice of the office they closely interact. The basis of this interaction is nothing more than the procedure adopted in the institution for considering and resolving cases, or "case proceedings" (using modern terminology - the process of making managerial decisions).

Cases sent to the ministry could go to the minister's office or directly to the departments. The office of the minister received decrees and orders of the supreme power, correspondence of the minister with other ministers and chief governors, governors and, in general, persons of equal rank. Submissions from subordinate bodies were forwarded to the minister in cases of extreme importance or urgency. His name received responses to his orders and complaints about decisions of departments, as well as secret cases.

Directly the departments received correspondence with other institutions and persons of equal status and subordinates, submissions from subordinate institutions, instructions of the minister and cases from his office with the minister's resolution.

All cases submitted to the ministry were divided into three categories: current affairs (cases received on a general basis in accordance with the established procedure) - reports, statements, representations, correspondence, etc .; extraordinary cases - their solution required the adoption of new resolutions, or cases on detected abuses; cases that are "time impatient" or urgent. Emergency and urgent matters were considered first.

The director of his office reported to the minister about the cases received, and to the director of the department - the governor of the affairs of the office of the department. This stage was, in fact, a preliminary examination of the case and did not entail any decisions, but determined the further course of the paper in the ministry. The general procedure for the movement of affairs in the ministries was strictly regulated, and a rare case could avoid the fate of going all the way of its preparation and consideration - from a separate table as part of a particular department, through the director of a department, and often the general presence of a department or the combined presence of several departments (in in case of extreme complexity of the case) to the minister, and sometimes to the advice of the minister, depending on the complexity of the case. This also applied to cases addressed to the minister and resolved by his authority. In addition, initially the “collegiate” procedure for drafting documents prevailed in the ministerial office work, in which consideration of each issue required repeating “word for word” of all previous documents. At the same time, affairs reached enormous proportions. With the passage of time (approximately by the middle of the 19th century), a new procedure for presenting the case in the form of a short note - an exposition of only the essence of the issue - took shape. All this turned the document circulation of institutions into a complex, hierarchically organized process, long in time, given that the main tools of the office were pen and paper, and the only registration system was a magazine one. The author of the famous "Guide to the visual study of the administrative flow of securities in Russia" (1856) M.N. Katkov names 54 clerical operations when considering a case in the Provincial Government, 34 in a department of the ministry, 36 in the Committee of Ministers.

The documents created in the process of "case proceedings" can be divided into two groups:

Documents that made up the internal office work of the institution (notes, certificates, extracts, meeting journals, registration journals, desktop registers, etc.);

Documents received by the institution from other institutions and sent to other institutions, including - "executive papers".

Since even in the last quarter of the 18th century. a “hierarchy of powers and places” was formed, which determined the system of “relations” between institutions of various types, then the ministerial office work had no choice but to “fit” into this system, which happened. Ministries received from higher institutions: from the emperor - decrees, orders; from the Council of State - the highest approved opinions; from the Senate - Senate decrees; from the Committee of Ministers - extracts from the journals of meetings. Ministers to higher authorities sent the highest reports (to the emperor), opinions, proposals, representations. Ministries exchanged with equal institutions through relations, messages, official letters. The orders of the ministers were sent to the subordinate places and persons, from them they received reports, reports, representations. Thus, the system of ministerial office work supplemented the existing one at the end of the 18th century. a system for documenting local institutions.

An independent stage of the "case proceedings" was "sending cases", which included registration of the documents to be sent in journals and direct dispatch (sealing in a package, inscribing an address, etc.). Until the middle of the 19th century, when postage envelopes and stamps appeared in Russia, the law provided that all outgoing papers should be sent in the form of packages - the document was folded in the form of an envelope and sealed with a wax seal.

For registration of documents sent to higher institutions and subordinate places and persons, there were separate journals. The peculiarity of the latter consisted in the fact that they provided for the recording of information (about the execution of the sent paper), which was obliged to report each presence place with special reports. In essence, this information was used to control the execution of documents, since the case was not considered completed until a report was received on execution or on the impossibility of executing the decision for some reason.

Revision of affairs - checking the conduct of affairs - according to the "General institution of ministries" constituted an independent section of office work. The audit of affairs was the function of the heads of departments, directors of departments; in the provinces - the heads of government offices and the governor himself. The heads of the departments checked the execution of documents on the tables and reported the information to the director of the department, who was instructed to check the executed and unfulfilled documents in the registration books and desktop registers every month and submit a statement about this to the minister. On the basis of these statements, at the end of each year in the office, a general statement was compiled for all departments and the office of the ministry. The audit of cases provided for checking the order of storage of documents and cases, the correctness of the headers of cases, the timing of the consideration of cases, the reasons for the delay in the consideration of cases.

The last stage of the "case management" for the "General institution of ministries" - reports. The law established three types of reports:

Reports in amounts;

Business reports;

Reports in "views and assumptions".

Reports in amounts were financial reports, reports in cases - reports on activities, the latest reports were submitted; are the work plans for the next year. The reports were prepared by departments, each in its own direction, then summarized in departments. Based on the reports of the departments, the Director of the Chancellery prepared summary reports for the ministry.

Serious changes in the management system, the corresponding restructuring of the system for documenting the activities of new institutions led to changes in the form of the document. In the office work of ministries, forms of institutions with a corner arrangement of requisites appear. Forms were printed or handwritten. The structure of the requisites of the form includes the name of the institution, the names of structural divisions, reflecting the place of the division - the author in the structure of the institution (department, department, table). The date of the document is also included in the form details, as well as the registration index of the document. The heading to the text of the document takes its separate place, located directly under the requisites of the form (practically the same as in modern documents). A link to the received document also appears (a prototype of the modern requisite "Link to the date and number of the incoming document"), which does not yet have a unified look and may look different: "Answer to No. ..." or: "From such and such" etc.

The “Addressee” property, which appeared in the 18th century, takes on a stable appearance. in collegiate office work, it is an indication of the position of a person in the dative case or the name of a place of presence. Receives a certain form of certification of the document: signatures and clips on the document include the title of the position of the person who signed or fastened the document and his personal signature.

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. legislative regulation of office work of higher, central and local institutions is carried out. Thanks to the system of codification of legislation adopted at that time in the Laws of the Russian Empire, it is quite easy to obtain detailed information on the legislative regulation of the office work of institutions of any level. Codes of laws began to be published in 1832. Then, replenished with new legalizations, they were republished in 1842, 1857 and subsequent years. The first two volumes of the Code contain legalizations concerning the supreme power, the activities of higher, central and local (provincial, district) institutions, including their office work.

A feature of the organization of office work during this period was not only its clear legislative regulation, but also the emergence of a fairly extensive office work literature, including works of a theoretical nature. Writers - collections of samples of documents - were of great importance during this period. The first such collections appear already in the second half of the 18th century, and from the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries. begin to be published regularly. More than one hundred such collections are known, published before 1917.

The purpose of publishing collections of sample documents is to give a complete guide on the procedure for the production of cases in public places with a description of the "rite of office work" and the attachment of document forms. Such collections were intended for the widest circle of officials and individuals who have to contact government agencies.

Against the background of the extensive clerical literature of this period, the works of NV Varadinov have a completely independent meaning - "Clerical work, or a theoretical and practical guide to civil and criminal, collegial and one-person writing, to the compilation of all government and private business papers and to the conduct of the cases themselves" (St. Petersburg, 1857) and its reprints with a slightly changed title in 1873 and 1887.

Office work N.V. Varadinov divided into theoretical and practical. In a theoretical sense, it is "a science that sets out the rules for drawing up business papers, acts and the affairs themselves"; practical office work is "the general procedure for the production of cases in public places according to the forms given by the laws and according to the established images of business papers." He referred to the subject of theoretical paperwork: the "external properties" of business papers and their "internal" properties.

In the section on the external properties of documents, he gives: classification of business papers in terms of external form:

1) intercourse (or relationship);

2) registers, journals, protocols, statements, inventories, reports, books;

3) official letters;

4) notes;

5) extracts;

6) the procedure for writing the text of the document in various kinds of business papers;

7) parts of business paper (ie document form): title, special notes, location of the circumstances of the case, signature, clip, blank inscriptions, "couvert" inscriptions;

8) titles and formulas for addressing different persons and other issues.

He refers to the internal properties of the style ("syllable") of documents, the peculiarities of writing (spelling), adopted in business papers.

In the practical section of the work of N.V. Varadinov's are extremely valuable: his proposed classification of documents (clerical affairs and papers, intercourse of public places and “petitioning” cases and papers), a detailed description of each type of document and samples of specific documents for each type, making up more than half of his voluminous work.

Despite the significant changes that the system of ministerial office work has undergone, especially in the initial period of its formation, by the end of the 19th century. life demanded more flexible forms of office work and its acceleration. For rapidly changing social relations, the system of ministerial office work continued to remain cumbersome and unwieldy, despite the fact that in the last third of the 19th century. first in the office work of the military department, and then in civilian ministries and institutions, typewriters began to be used. Their appearance was a truly revolutionary step in documenting the activities of institutions. It accelerated all the written work of the office, made it possible to simultaneously make several copies of documents, significantly reducing the amount of handwritten work. Moreover, the typewritten text has become more compact, due to which the volume of documents has been reduced.

The advent of the telegraph gave rise to a new type of correspondence - telegrams, which very quickly became mass documents; the invention of the telephone led to the appearance of telephone messages - a written record of a message transmitted by telephone.

In the late XIX - early XX centuries. more and more attention is paid to the registration system, to the need to simplify it through its centralization. This idea fundamentally contradicted the idea laid down in the "General Institution of Ministries", in accordance with which many points of registration of documents in the institution were created.

Much work to simplify office work was carried out in individual departments, in particular the military, where in 1911 the "Regulations on writing and office work in the military department" introduced a system of simplified office work. The regulation simplified the technique of correspondence, reduced the number of official documents. For the written relationship of officials of the military department, three types of documents were established - a report, an order, an attitude. The cases of the exchange of telegraph messages were regulated, the clear meanings of the inscriptions limiting access to documents were established: "secret", "not subject to publicity", "hastily", etc. The regulation established the procedure for using typewriters for the production of documents, hectographs for copying and other technical devices speeding up paperwork processing of documents.

However, due to the outbreak of the First World War, the work on improving the office work in the military department was not borrowed by other ministries and departments of tsarist Russia, and the socio-political revolution that took place in 1917 - first the February bourgeois democratic, then the October socialist revolutions led to a complete breakdown of the state apparatus and the creation of a new one, which, although it adopted many old traditions, was born on a fundamentally new basis.

2.2 Rationalization of management and office work in 1917 - 1941

The ideas of scientists about the history of the formation and development of management institutions, office work until October 1917 have a long tradition and have developed into a fairly clear and harmonious system of knowledge. The Soviet period needs a rethinking of facts, events, concepts, given the ambiguity in the interpretation of many issues of the development of managerial thought, the scientific organization of labor and office work during this period.

The October Revolution of 1917, aimed at a radical demolition of the old state apparatus, at involving the broad working masses in its activities, radically changed the state apparatus in form. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets became the highest organ of state power. In the period between its congresses, the Central Executive Committee was elected - the executive branch. For direct control of the country, the first Soviet government was formed - the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom). The first 13 People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats) were created by a resolution of the Congress to guide individual branches of government.

In terms of its composition, the new apparatus was fundamentally different from the old one: workers, soldiers, etc., who did not have a special education, were recruited to work in Soviet institutions. The level of management documentation has decreased. At the same time, many tsarist officials remained in their places, sabotaging the new government. It was necessary to legislatively formalize the activities of power structures, to streamline the documentation processes. On October 30, 1917, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree "On the procedure for the approval and publication of laws." For the execution of administrative documents, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a resolution of March 2, 1918 "On the Form of Forms of State Institutions", which listed the mandatory details of the form of documents. During the formation of the Soviet state apparatus, much attention was paid to the simplification and rationalization of office work. So, on December 8, 1918, the Council of Workers 'and Peasants' Defense issued a decree "On the accurate and prompt execution of orders of the central government and the elimination of clerical red tape."

The experience of predecessors was used to rationalize the control technology. For example, when creating the "Regulations on writing and office work", a document of the military department of 1911, similar in name and content, was taken as a basis. in order to save it, etc.). When assessing this period, one must take into account the difficult conditions of the Civil War, devastation. The class battles did not help stabilize and streamline the activities of the apparatus, and the long and stubborn struggle against bureaucracy did not, and could not lead, to tangible positive results. However, the period of the 20s. can be considered the most beneficial in terms of:

Research organizations in the field of management, scientific organization of labor (NOT) and office work;

The most important regulatory and methodological documents released in the field of documentation support for management (DOU);

Practices of the work of departments, institutions, organizations for documenting the management activities of "general office work" and special documentation systems.

Social, political and scientific life of Russia in the 20s. replete with contradictions. On the one hand, the suppression of the activities of prominent scientists, on the other, the active and successful work of theorists and practitioners of management (Gastev A.K., Kerzhentsev P.M., Bogdanov AA, Vitke HA, Vyzov L.A., Drezen E.K. , Burdyanskiy I.M., etc.), the existence of several completely independent schools of management thought. For example, the schools of the prominent researcher of NOT and management A.K. Gastev. (head of the Central Institute of Labor), who put forward an original and meaningful concept of labor attitudes. The direction headed by Kerzhentsev P.M. (the creator in 1923 and the head of the most massive public organization in the country - the League "Time", later renamed the League "NOT" - 1924). Kerzhentsev P.M. made in his research an important conclusion about the transfer of the universal organizational principles of the activities of objects from one sphere to another. He wrote: "... use military experience to some extent in industry or use the organizational methods of industry in cultural work, etc." A significant circle of scientists was united by the school of E.F. Rozmirovich. Its representatives mainly worked at the Institute of Management Technology (ITU) under the People's Commissariat of the Workers 'and Peasants' Inspection of the USSR, the director of which was E.F. Rozmirovich herself. The development of management thought - "production interpretation" of management processes is presented in the literature by LA Byzov, EK Drezen, EF Rozmirovich. and others. The initial methodological premise of their theoretical constructions and practical rationalization activities was the statement about the presence of common features in production and management processes. Despite a certain limitation of the functional and technical approach to the study of management, the authors of this concept were able to effectively solve many "local" management issues from its position: rationalization of structures; improvement of documentation of execution, planning and accounting; rationalization of technology and techniques of management procedures and operations. The institute issued recommendations for improving office work in the management apparatus.

Organizational and scientific activity on optimization in the field of management was fixed by regulatory documents and the creation of a whole network of public organizations, institutes and laboratories dealing with issues of NOT and office work. So, in 1922, under the general management of the NK RKI of the USSR, a normalization department was created, consisting of five sections. In the clerical section, they were engaged in improving the structure of clerical services in the party and state apparatus, rationalizing execution control, developing reasonable production standards for certain categories of administrative workers. On the basis of the normalization department in July 1923, the Section of Administrative Technology was organized, which continued and expanded the areas of research of its predecessor (examination of the state apparatus using timekeeping, questionnaires; consultations on improving the activities of "lower" government bodies, methodological assistance, etc.).

In order to coordinate the work on NOT throughout the country in December 1923, the Council for the Scientific Organization of Labor, Production and Management (SovNOT) was formed. According to the Regulation on the Council, approved on December 26, 1923, it became a permanent advisory body under the collegium of the NK RFKI USSR and was called upon to develop the basic principles of administration technology and scientific organization of management, in particular its documentation support. The Council also dealt with the rationalization of technology and production technology.

In the mid-20s. in addition, two new large organizations were created: on January 1, 1925, the Orgstroy, and in February 1926, the State Institute of Management Technology (ITU). Both organizations worked in constant and close contact. Moreover, the activity of Orgstroy was mainly of an applied nature (development of samples of office furniture, equipment, office equipment), while the ITU paid more attention to theoretical research in the field of management.

The most interesting and promising developments of office work problems were carried out in the ITU in the following main areas:

Document flow of institutions and methods of its optimization;

Methods of registration of documents, the choice of rational methods of accounting for documentation;

Control over the execution of documents;

Storage of documents.

In terms of the system and directions of inspection of facilities, the ITU practically did not differ from foreign consulting and implementation companies and from organizations that work in this area at the present stage. As a result of a detailed survey of institutions, a project for the reorganization of the general office work was created, consisting of two main parts. The first contained a brief description of the current state of affairs in the organization; in the second, specific ways of reorganizing and improving office work were outlined. The description of the office work was carried out in accordance with the stages of document processing: reception, registration, marking of correspondence, courier communication, execution procedure and control, sending documentation.

In the project of the “new office work system” of the ITU, the following general principles for optimizing the activities of the surveyed objects were outlined:

The organization of office work should be uniform for the entire institution;

Registration of documents should be one-time and made in the most simplified form; refusal, where possible, from registration;

The number of instances through which each document passes is reduced to a minimum;

Reference work is provided with the least energy and time consumption;

Control over the execution of documents should be a substantive check, not formal;

Supervision, leadership and responsibility for the organization of office work rests with a specific person.

After setting out the general principles, specific recommendations were given for improving the office work for the surveyed object. The ITS and the Central Archive of the RSFSR prepared "Rules for setting up the archival part of office work in state, professional and cooperative institutions and enterprises of the RSFSR", published in 1928. They gave recommendations on compiling lists of categories and cases circulating in institutions, and the rules for their destruction (for documents expired).

An important stage in the development of office work problems can be considered the draft "General Rules for Documentation and Document Management" prepared by the ITU (published in 1931). It accumulates the advanced practical experience accumulated by this time by various departments and organizations, summarizes the research of domestic and foreign scientists. It was supposed to introduce "General rules" as standard and uniform for all institutions. The main executive body for the implementation of all office work, according to the authors, was supposed to be the secretariat. The "Rules" defined the functions of the secretariat employees, their duties and the content of the work. The presentation of the material in the "Rules" can be compared with the content of modern teaching instructions for computer programs. For example, the procedure for processing correspondence was described in detail and the methodology for performing each operation was indicated. Unfortunately, the "Rules" were not finalized according to the feedback of the institutions and were not finally approved. The ITU was liquidated in April 1932.

With all the variety of types and forms of documents actually circulating in Soviet institutions, the streams of documentation continued to remain disordered in form and content. In this regard, by the end of the 20s. the problem of their unification and standardization arose sharply. In the ITU, a special structural unit was organized to deal with these issues at the all-Union level - the Cabinet of Standardization. He developed standards for service letters, telegrams, telephone messages, protocols, notifications, etc.

The materials used in office work (paper, ink, typewriter ribbons, etc.) were standardized; office tools and items, including office furniture. The work of the Cabinet on the standardization of paper formats was successful (in particular, the experience of Germany was used).

In the 20s. systems of special documentation also developed. Taking into account the complete dominance of the concept of building socialism, the emphasis was placed on documenting functions such as planning, accounting, control. In February 1921, the State General Planning Commission (Gosplan of the RSFSR) was formed, which solved the problem of developing an overall economic plan, taking into account the prospective and current development of industries and individual enterprises.

Statistical documentation is an important and effective tool in farm management. Already in July 1918, the central (CSO) and local statistical bodies were formed, which carried out surveys on the state and prospects of the development of the Soviet economy. At this time, there was an intensive work on the organization of current industry statistics, the form of periodic reporting on special forms. In December 1926, the first All-Union population census was carried out. Personal, family and household forms were used as a documentary basis. The statistical documentation was uniform in form and indicators included.

Accounting documentation, reflecting and recording the movement of financial resources, due to its specificity should be unified to a greater extent than other systems. This task, in the main, was solved by researchers. The experience of tsarist Russia and Western European countries was widely used to rationalize the bulk of accounting documentation. Correct organization of accounting at all levels of management, improvement of accounting forms of documentation - these are the topical issues of the development of accounting and its documentation in the period under review.

In the 30s. a rigid, centralized command and control system is being formed and strengthened, which excludes the possibility of considering alternative approaches to organizing public office work. The result is the collapse of the structures involved in the research of issues of NOT and office work; almost all large research and development centers are liquidated, and their leaders, at best, end their lives in complete oblivion, at worst, they are repressed. The atmosphere of this period was most clearly manifested in the social orders of the authorities to science - in particular, efforts were aimed at "enslaving" the country's population by legal means. For these purposes, for example, the system of registration of Soviet citizens was improved.

The 1936 Constitution significantly changed the political system, hierarchy and powers of the highest authorities. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR became the highest and only legislative body, the Congress of Soviets of the USSR, the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and its Presidium, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR lost such rights. A rigid system of powers was established in the publication of certain types of documents for each hierarchical structure. These innovations have simplified and streamlined the documentation processes in the highest echelons of power.

The absence of a single methodological center for coordinating the work of institutions in the field of management and office work, the discrepancy in the activities of departments and organizations in documentation issues put on the agenda the problem of concentration of scientific forces on a national scale and their organizational design. In 1941, the first interdisciplinary meeting on office equipment was held. The draft program put forward by the meeting participants broadly reflects the following issues of management documentation:

Creation of an organizational and methodological center to manage the organization of office work;

Development of a regulatory framework for the activities of office management services;

Mechanization of the work of "clerical" workers;

Carrying out unification and stencilization of management documentation;

Establishment of a unified system of training and retraining of office workers;

Creation of an all-Union scientific research institute for the development of a complex of problems of documentation support.

However, the practical implementation of the proposed program was prevented by the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War.

2.3 Management and office work in the 1945-1990s.

The difficult state of the war-ravaged economy and the problems of restoring the national economy after the end of the war pushed the issues of documentation support of management into the background. An increase in interest in the development of problems of rationalizing technology and management techniques can be attributed to the early 60s.

The assertion of some researchers regarding a qualitative increase in the level of developments in this area in comparison with the period of the 20s. seems to be unproven and is only partly true for research on the problems of management and documentation of management, carried out in the 70s. A negative assessment is based, first of all, on a comparison of the achievements of world science and practice in the management and development of information technologies in this area. The lagging behind our country was especially acute and visible in the 80s-90s, when theoretical developments in the field of cybernetics, mathematical methods of management, informatics and technical element base led to the widespread informatization of the socio-political and economic life of the industrially developed countries of the West, the introduction of into the real management activities of new technologies, to the development of the concept of "paperless office". This does not detract from the achievements of domestic science in the field of management, NOT, records management, in the development of a set of theoretical and applied problems - the creation of a system of standards for documentation, the Unified State Document System (USSD), all-Union classifiers, unified documentation systems, improvement of special documentation systems, recommendations of the Research Institute of Labor on the regulation and optimization of the activities of managerial staff.

In June 1960, an All-Union meeting on the mechanization of labor of engineering and technical workers and employees of the administrative and managerial apparatus was held in Moscow. The decisions made in their content largely coincided with the recommendations of the 1941 meeting - the urgency of creating a specialized institute was confirmed with the assignment of the task of developing a Unified Office Workflow to it, the concept of NOT was formulated and the main directions of research were outlined. Undoubtedly, the decisions of this meeting intensified the work of scientists and management practitioners. A certain milestone in the development of issues of working with documents was the "Model instruction on office work for institutions and organizations of the RSFSR," approved by the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR, in which the main emphasis is placed on the unification of office work. During this period, the influence of the Main Archive Administration (GAU) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR increased. Since 1958, GAU has become competent to control the setting of the documentary part of the office work of institutions, organizations and enterprises. In 1963, GAU published "Basic rules for setting up the documentary part of office work and the work of archives of institutions, organizations, enterprises of the USSR", which for many years served as a guide for documentation and archives services and contributed to the streamlining of their activities.

On the long and thorny path of preparation of the State System of Documentation Support for Management, the first legally important stage was the adoption on July 25, 1963 of the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On Measures to Improve Archival Affairs in the USSR." The main archival department and a number of state committees and institutes were entrusted with the development of the Unified State Statistics Service. The first real result of this work can be considered the preparation in 1965 of "Materials for the Unified State System of Office Work." In 1966, within the framework of the Archival Service, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Documentation and Archival Affairs (VNIIDAD) was established, which was entrusted with completing the development of this document. In 1967, VNIIDAD developed only a methodological research program. In 1970, a draft of the main provisions of the Unified State Statistics Service was created, in the preparation of which NIITruda, VNIIorgtekhniki, the Institute of State and Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and VNIIstandardization took part. After discussion and revision in September 1973, the "Main provisions of the EGSD" was approved by the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Science and Technology and recommended them to ministries, departments and organizations for use, but only as provisions that do not have an official status. The authors of the EGSD summarized the best practices of their time and proposed the optimal technology for performing management operations and documenting them. EGSD was of a complex nature, i.e. included not only office work issues, but also recommendations on the scientific organization of employees' labor, the structure of office management services and their technical equipment. The implementation of its provisions has increased the general culture of management and the quality of decisions made, has made it possible to optimize the structure and staffing of the management apparatus. However, elements of new information technologies, which were partially implemented in the practice of leading foreign firms, were not represented in the Unified State Statistics Service due to the complete lack of literature on these issues and funding for their practical study. This gap was partially filled later by the creation of a new version of the State System for Document Management (GSDOU), approved by the head of the Main Archive Department in 1988.

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The first educational systems were formed back in antiquity (VI-V centuries BC). There are known Roman, Athenian, Spartan schools, which differed among themselves in the methods and content of teaching, as well as its goals. Almost all philosophers of antiquity believed that the main task of upbringing was the development of good, positive character traits, obedience to the law, respect for elders, mentors, as well as the suppression of bad inclinations in a developing personality. It is these postulates of pedagogical science that have passed the test of time from the era of antiquity to the present day.

The emergence of preschool pedagogy as a science dates back to the century when the Czech teacher JAN AMOS KOMENSKY (1592-1670) created the first system of preschool education. He outlined progressive ideas about the development and upbringing of a child:

He pointed out the need to take into account the age and individual characteristics of children;

Developed age periodization, which includes four age periods: childhood, adolescence, adolescence, maturity. Each period spanning six years has a specific scale. For children from birth to 6 years of age, there is a "mother school";

He put forward the idea of naturedifferent upbringing;

The manual "The Visible World in Pictures" created by him laid the foundation for the visual acquaintance of children with the objects and phenomena of the surrounding life;

He substantiated the need for widespread use of visual methods in upbringing and educational work with children;

He considered the development of the sense organs, speech and ideas about the environment to be an important task in the upbringing of children under 6 years of age;

He proposed a knowledge program that prepares the child for systematic education in school, which contained the beginnings of knowledge from all fields of science. Knowledge and skills were arranged according to the principle of a sequential transition from simple to complex, from easy to difficult;

The Swiss teacher HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) attached great importance to preschool education:

He considered the main task of upbringing to be the formation of the moral character of the child, rejecting moral teachings as a means of moral upbringing, sought to develop in children love, first of all, for the mother, then for peers and adults, to foster a sense of duty, justice through exercise and moral deeds;

He put forward the idea of combining productive labor with training;

He developed the idea of elementary education, according to which all knowledge is based on the basic elements: form, number and counting. Initial training should build on these elements;

Paid great attention to the development of tasks, content and methods of preschool education of a child in a family;

In mental education, he put forward the development of thinking, mental abilities, the ordering of ideas in the first place;

He created the "Book of Mothers", where he wrote that the mother, as the main educator, should develop the physical strength of the child from an early age, instill in him labor skills, lead him to knowledge of the world around him, and foster love for people.

In the second half of the 19th century, the German educator FRIEDRICH FREBEL (1782-1852) created a system for educating young children, which was of great importance for the development of the theory and practice of preschool education all over the world. In his opinion, everything that exists is based on God, a single divine principle, and man is a small creature carrying a particle of deity. The purpose of a person is to reveal the divine principle inherent in him. Education should contribute to the creative self-disclosure of the personality and instincts and abilities inherent in the child, and not determine them. Froebel considered play as the basis for raising a child in kindergarten, through which the divine principle inherent in the child is revealed, he considered play as one of the means of moral education, believing that in collective and individual games, imitating adults, the child is affirmed in the rules and norms of moral behavior. For the development of a child at an early age, he offered six "gifts." The use of this manual helps the development of building skills in children and at the same time creates in them ideas about form, size, spatial relationships, numbers. The disadvantage of these gifts is contrived symbolic justification, dryness, abstractness. The great merit of the German teacher was the variety of types of children's activities and occupations introduced by him: this is work with gifts-building materials, outdoor games, modeling, weaving from paper, etc.

ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858) - English philosopher and teacher, created a school for young children - from one to six years old, which included a nursery, a kindergarten and a playground. Here children learned to sing and dance, and spent a lot of time in the fresh air. Particular attention was paid to physical education, gymnastics, games. Great importance was attached to the upbringing of children in the spirit of collectivism. The children were explained in detail the rules of collective communication, indicated that they should not offend their comrades, but respect them and provide them with assistance when necessary. In this school, there was no systematic teaching of writing and reading, children were taught to read and write in the process of conversations about nature, about the surrounding objects and phenomena. Much attention was paid to aesthetic education, musical and rhythmic studies.

Owen was the first to substantiate and implement the idea of social education of children from the first years of their life and created the world's first preschool institution for children of the proletariat. In his educational institutions, mental and physical education was given, children were brought up in the spirit of collectivism, they were taught work skills, taking into account their interests and using games and entertainment in working with them as the most important educational factor.

MARIA MONTESSORI (1870-1952) - Italian teacher, theorist of preschool education, in the book "Children's Home. Method of Scientific Pedagogy" outlined her system of preschool education. Her progressive ideas:

Introduced monthly anthropometric measurements for the first time;

To provide children with conditions for free independent activity, she made a reform in the usual equipment of the building and kindergarten rooms: school desks were replaced with light furniture for the growth of children, hygienic and labor equipment was introduced;

Having defined a passive role for the educator and assigning the function of activity to her teaching material, Montessori, at the same time, demanded that educators be armed with the method of observation, the development of their interest in the manifestations of children;

Along with the main form of upbringing and teaching children - independent studies - she suggested using the developed form - an individual lesson, building it on pedagogically rational principles (conciseness, simplicity, objectivity

Created didactic material aimed at exercises of the tactile-muscular sense.

There are also negative aspects in Montessori theory:

Strictly differentiated between work and play and did not use play in the learning process;

She did not attach positive significance to children's creative play, which makes her theory one-sided, and the pedagogical process does not satisfy the natural needs of young children;

She excluded from her theory the consideration of the development of coherent children's speech, the introduction of children to the artistic creativity of the people, literary works;

She believed that from 3 to 6 years old is not the age of acquiring knowledge, but the period of formal exercise of all aspects of mental activity, which are stimulated by the sensory sphere.

The contribution of Russian teachers to the development of preschool pedagogy.

At the beginning of the 18th century. there was a rapid development and change in Russia under the influence of the reforms carried out by Peter I. One of the areas of reform is education. Preschool education at this time did not stand out as independent, but was carried out under the influence of general pedagogical branches. Pedagogical ideas were expressed and published by the best representatives of that time. In 1832, a small experimental school for young children was opened at the Gatchina orphanage. They were there all day - eating, drinking, the little ones playing, mostly outdoors; the elders were taught to read, write, count and sing. A significant place in the daily routine was given to stories and conversations. The school did not last long, but it showed the success of such activities with preschoolers.

KD USHINSKY (1824 - 1870) - the founder of Russian, in particular, preschool pedagogy. His thought about the nationality of upbringing is the most important in pedagogical theory. He believed that it was necessary to create a system of public education that would meet the needs and interests of the people (education of patriotism, national pride, love of work; knowledge of folk culture, native language, works of oral folk art). He created an original theory of children's play, confirming it with scientific and psychological data (play is a free, independent activity; its content is influenced by the environment; the teacher should not interfere; toys are of great importance; it is important to use folk games). He recognized the closest connection between the aesthetic and moral education of preschoolers. Native Word presents stories, poems, and articles that are simple in presentation, understandable, and are a valuable means of mental, moral and aesthetic education of children. His thoughts on improving the educational work of kindergartens are interesting:

There is no need to overwork children with "sedentary activities", give more free time for independent activities;

Premature learning tires the child's brain, instills self-doubt;

Learning delays cause developmental delays in children;

He considered it necessary to develop: educational activities for children "preceding book education"; non-educational activities that are adjacent to children's play.

These provisions helped to more accurately determine the content and methodology of the educational work of the kindergarten, establish lines of communication and continuity of the work of the kindergarten and school. KD Ushinsky identified the requirements for the personality of a child "gardener". He attached great importance to the family, noted the enormous role of parents in the development and upbringing of the child's personality.

A.S. SIMONOVICH (1840 - 1933) considered kindergarten as a preparatory stage for school education. She put forward the idea of creating an elementary class in kindergarten for children from 6 to 7 years old. She determined the purpose and purpose of the kindergarten, sought to establish the general and special tasks of the kindergarten and primary school, based on the psychological characteristics of children of preschool and primary school age. She noted that the relationship between the teacher and the children in the kindergarten should be based on the model of family relationships.

EN VODOVOZOVA (1844 - 1923) was the first in preschool pedagogy to fully disclose the problems of mental and moral education of preschool children, starting from an early age. She based her system of family and social education of preschool children on the idea of the nationality of upbringing. She attached great importance to the physical education of children and labor education as one of the moral aspects, etc.

P.F. LESGAFT (1837 - 1909) - scientist and teacher - proved that the environment and exercises influence the development of the body, considered it necessary for educators, parents to study children in the process of everyday life and educational work. In his book "Family upbringing of a child and its meaning" he outlined the scientific foundations of family upbringing of children; put forward the main requirements for the organization of upbringing in the family, wrote about the inadmissibility of corporal punishment of children, about the importance of the role of play and toys in raising children. He created an original theory of physical education, according to which he put motor exercises, the ability to consciously control individual movements, to overcome obstacles with the greatest dexterity and the least expenditure of energy, in the first place in the anatomical and physiological improvement of the body of children. He considered physical education to be an important means of all-round personality development, closely related to mental, moral and aesthetic education.

L.N. TOLSTOY (1828 - 1910) - the idea of free upbringing occupied the most important place in his pedagogical theory. He believed that a person has the right to freely form his beliefs and views, without any violence and coercion from society, and that children are inherent in natural perfection and high moral qualities - for the first time in the history of pedagogy, he paid special attention to the problems of raising preschool children. It is pointless to bring up a child, since the consciousness of the moral ideal is stronger in children than in adults. Adults should only give material so that they can develop. He idealized the nature of children. In his teaching, he denied the purposeful educational impact on children. He was a supporter of family upbringing, the main condition is a healthy family structure (parental consistency, mutual respect, a unified approach), the need to foster love and habits for work. The upbringing of children should be aimed at the harmonious development of strength and abilities, opposed corporal punishment in family education. Is the creator of educational books "ABC", "Book for reading"

In pedagogical literature, the history of preschool pedagogy has been traced by some authors since antiquity. However, throughout the centuries-old history of pedagogical thought, the originality of preschool childhood has not actually stood out. The reasoning of most ancient thinkers about upbringing was predominantly of a general nature, and their remarks about the early stages of age development are presented only by separate indirect statements. This was due to the prevailing in the public and scientific consciousness the concept of childhood, which did not stand out as a kind of stage in human development. Consideration of a child from the point of view of his imperfection, lagging behind an adult in all physical and psychological parameters gave rise to a general orientation of pedagogical thought to overcome this lag. The aim of education and upbringing was the achievement of the "imperfect adult", which was considered a child, the level of a normally developed adult. The peculiarities of age-related psychophysical development were regarded mainly as hindrances to the achievement of this goal.

In the history of human development, the objective separation of preschool childhood into a specific stage of personality formation has a socially determined character. According to D.B. Elkonin, preschool childhood appears only at a certain stage in the development of society, which makes increased demands on the formation of personality. Throughout the centuries-old history, the inclusion of the child in the world of adults, in the process of material production, was carried out gradually from the earliest years and was almost exclusively determined by the maturation of the organism and the parallel assimilation of elementary labor skills. The material and spiritual progress of society has led to the need for a long-term gradual entry of the child into the world of adults and the isolation of specific age periods in this process. In pedagogy, this manifested itself in the design of the concepts of childhood as a qualitatively unique age stage.

The position on the decisive role of pedagogical influence on the developing personality of the child was most fully formed in the works Ya.A. Kamensky , who formulated goals, objectives and developed the content of education and upbringing for the period from birth to adolescence, including during preschool childhood. The book "Mother's School" (1632) and the corresponding section of the "Great Didactics" were the initial stage in the formation of preschool pedagogy. Comenius believed that the basis for the development of speech and mental qualities of a small child should be "play or entertainment." He wrote a book for children "The World of Sensual Things in Pictures" (1658), which should "encourage young minds to look for something entertaining in it and facilitate the assimilation of the alphabet."

In the era of the Enlightenment, humanistic tendencies were developed by John Locke, who opposed the medieval suppression of the individual, drills, and intimidation of young children. He put forward important psychological and pedagogical provisions on taking into account age characteristics, the mechanism of habit and its role in the formation of character, the development of curiosity and consciousness of children, showed the ways of forming morality.

Democratic ideas were important for preschool pedagogy Jean-Jacques Rousseau that contributed to the development of interest and respect for the personality of the child. Rousseau argued that childhood should be considered as something independent in the general process of personality formation and having its own laws of development. He expressed valuable provisions on the sensory education of a child, his physical and moral tempering, providing children with the greatest possible independence, on the use of natural factors in the development of feelings and thinking.

In the 2nd floor. XVIII century attention to issues of preschool education has increased. I.B. Basedow highlighted a range of issues of preschool education that require development: the planned and consistent development of children, the use of didactic games, etc. J.F. Oberlin (France) founded (1769) the first institutions for the upbringing of young children, called. "Knitting schools", in which games were used, subject visualization was widely used, special attention was paid to the development of speech and moral and religious education.

Pedagogical directions that are promising for the upbringing of children in preschool age, including the principle of developmental education, the organization of children's life based on their independence, developed I.G. Pestalozzi ... He pointed to the connection between preschool education and school, which he proposed to implement through a special "children's class". By recommending a thorough study of the individual characteristics of children, Pestalozzi contributed to the psychologization of the upbringing process, developed didactics and methods of initial training.

In the 30-40s. XIX century. developed a pedagogical system F. Froebel , having acquired will exclude, influence in preschool pedagogy in the 2nd half. XIX - early XX centuries. Froebel's teachings included many progressive ideas: the idea of a child as a developing personality; the interpretation of development as an active entry of the child into the world of natural and societies, phenomena; creation of special institutions for the upbringing of children - "kindergarten", significantly different from the various types of "schools for toddlers"; approval of play as the basis of upbringing in kindergarten; development of didactic materials, methods of speech development, content of classes in kindergarten; creation of an institution for the training of educators. With Froebel's activities, the separation of preschool pedagogy into an independent branch of pedagogical science is associated.

For all its popularity, the Froebel system was critically assessed and revised from the first years of its existence. On its basis, some national systems of preschool education were formed, in which such features of the original theory as mysticism, symbolism, pedantry, and the canonization of didactic material were denied.

Preschool pedagogy of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. under the influence of changing social conditions, successes in the development of natural science, she was forced to abandon the concept of strict management of education and highlighted biologization direction with its position on the spontaneous development of the child's abilities. In accordance with this setting, the role of the teacher, which means, the degree, was reduced to the selection of sets of exercises and the creation of the necessary environment for self-development and self-education of the child. Ovid Decroli and Maria Montessori applied in preschool institutions improved methods of training the senses, skills, as well as didactic materials created by them when working with retarded children; they focused on the individual style of the child's activity in the preschool institution. The findings and recommendations of these educators in the field of sensory education have significantly enriched the theory and practice of preschool education.

In the practice of preschool education, pragmatist pedagogyJ. Dewey , highlighted the development of applied skills.

The most important role in the development of preschool pedagogy in Russia was played by the pedagogical system K. D. Ushinsky , the principles of upbringing, the formation of the need for work, developed by him, as well as thoughts about using the enormous possibilities of the native language, the role of the teacher's personal influence in raising a child. For preschool pedagogy, Ushinsky's ideas about the peculiarities of the mental development of children, about the role of activity and activity at an early age, about the need to study children's folk games, about the pedagogical meaning of fairy tales, etc., are valuable.

Since the 60s. XIX century. in the practical and theoretical activities of E.H. Vodovozova, A.S. Simonovich, E.I. Konradi and other followers of Ushinsky worked out and comprehended the peculiarities of the Russian national system of preschool education. Simonovich began to work according to the Froebel method, but later modified it, strengthening the role of Russian folk elements: she introduced a special section "Homeland Studies" into the system of classes, used folk songs and games. She published the first Russian magazine on preschool education "Kindergarten". Vodovozova, from a democratic standpoint, solved the issue of the goals of upbringing, revealed the content and methods of moral and mental upbringing at an early age, pointed out the leading role of the mother in the formation of the child's personality.

In the late XIX - early XX centuries. The leading institutions that promoted the ideas of public preschool education and trained qualified educators were the Fröbel societies and courses. The propaganda of the scientific foundations of upbringing in the family has intensified. P.F. Kapterev defended the idea of public preschool education, which at that time had many opponents, analyzed the experience of various directions in education. P.F. Lesgaft he thoroughly examined the goal, objectives, content and methods of family education, analyzed the issues of personality formation from a scientific psychological and physiological position, created an original system of physical education. To the theory of free education, the most consistent propagandist of which was K.N. Wentzel , several directions adjoined (M.Kh. Sventitskaya, L.K. Schleger). She was engaged in the development of her own preschool education system E.I. Tikheeva (methodology for the development of children's speech, the problem of sensory education and its role in mental development, the creation of a complex of didactic materials and games, the promotion of the merits of social education and criticism of the theory of free education). During this period, issues of preschool education were widely discussed on the pages of the pedagogical journals "Vestnik Vobrastovaniya", "Education and Training", "Russian School". "Free education".

After 1917, the development of domestic preschool pedagogy was characterized for several years by a certain ideological and pedagogical pluralism, when various directions in preschool education existed simultaneously. In the 20s. preserved kindergartens that worked according to the Froebel system, according to the "Tikheeva method", as well as others, combining elements of various systems. At the same time, the type of Soviet kindergarten began to take shape. All-Russian congresses on preschool education were held (1919, 1921, 1924, 1928), in which scientists took part in the field of pedagogy and psychology (P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky, K.N.Kornilov), pediatrics and hygiene of children (E.A. Arkin, V.V. Gorinevsky, G.N.Speransky, L.I. Chulitskaya), art and artistic education (G.I. Roshal, V.N.Shatskaya, E.A. A. Rumer). During this period, research was launched on the problems of raising young children in preschool institutions (V.M.Bekhterev, N.M.Schelovanov, H.M. Aksarina, etc.).

An important role in the formation of Soviet preschool pedagogy was played by N.K. Krupskaya. Together with other teachers (D.A. Lazurkina, M.M. Vilenskaya, R.I. Prushitskaya, A.V.Surovtseva), she introduced ideas arising from a kind of interpretation of the socio-economic provisions of Marxism into the theory and practice of preschool education. This interpretation consisted in an extraordinary ideologization of the entire process of preschool education, expressed in the dominance of political goals over humanistic ones. N.K. Krupskaya defined the basic principles of building the Soviet system of preschool education, pointing out the need to carry out targeted, systematic educational and educational work in the first years of a child's life according to a specially created and scientifically based program that takes into account the age-related psychophysiological characteristics of children.

The Second Congress on Preschool Education (1921) proclaimed the idea of creating a system of public preschool education on a Marxist basis. Collectivism, materialism, and activism were asserted as the leading principles of educational work. The need to pay great attention to acquaintance of children with the basics of political literacy, research methods in the study of the world by children was emphasized. Ideological attitudes in the field of preschool pedagogy were characterized by an exaggeration of the role of labor education in preschool age, active anti-religious propaganda, a negative attitude towards dolls, fairy tales, traditional holidays, and ignorance of many provisions of pre-revolutionary pedagogy. In the mid-20s. the rejection of attempts to adapt and use ("Sovietization") other pedagogical systems was proclaimed, and by the end of the 1920s. kindergartens that followed systems that did not receive the approval of the People's Commissariat for Education were closed.

Changes in the work of preschool institutions inevitably followed changes in school policy. Resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on the school in 1931-1936. contributed to a decrease in the ideologization of the content and forms of educational work, the rejection of the extremes characteristic of the previous decade. The decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat for Education" (1936) had ambiguous consequences for the study of child development. Mechanistic approaches to explaining the factors of child development (biologizing and sociologizing directions) and the shortcomings of test measurements were criticized. However, this decree led to the curtailment of a number of directions in the field of the study of childhood.

By the end of the 30s. formed the main theoretical provisions of Soviet preschool pedagogy, which remained generally recognized until the mid-80s. The basic principles were determined: ideological, systematic and consistent upbringing, its connection with life, taking into account the age-related psychophysiological characteristics of the child, the unity of family and social upbringing. The principle of the leading role of the educator in the formation of the child's personality was established, the need for a clear planning of educational work was emphasized. In 1934 the first kindergarten program was adopted. The development of various issues of preschool pedagogy worked N. Vetlugin, A.M. Leushina, R.I. Zhukovskaya, D.V. Mendzheritskaya, F.S. Levin-Shchirina, E.I. Radin, A.P. Usova, B.I. Khachapuridze and others. Private methods of preschool pedagogy were developed: the development of speech - E.I. Tikheeva, F.N. Bleher, E.Yu. Shabad; visual activity - Fleerina, A.A. Volkova, K.M. Lepilov, N.A. Sakulina; musical education - T.S. Babadzhan, N.A. Brooms; natural history - R.M. Basho, A.A. Bystrov, A.M. Stepanova; the formation of elementary mathematical concepts - E.I. Tikheeva, M. Ya. Morozova, Bleher. At the same time, due to the prevailing socio-political conditions for the development of the country, there was a certain alienation of Soviet preschool pedagogy from the world theory and practice of preschool education.

Research into the issues of preschool education continued during the years of the Great Patriotic War. The problems of physical education and hardening, baby food, protection of the nervous system of children, patriotic education were studied. When the APN of the RSFSR was created (1943), a sector for the problems of preschool education was formed. In the postwar period, work in the field of preschool pedagogy developed at research institutes, at the departments of pedagogical institutes. A.P. Usova, together with her colleagues, developed a system of kindergarten didactics (1944-1953): the program and methodology for teaching preschoolers was highlighted, and subsequently the introduction of systematic education in kindergarten was carried out. In the 2nd floor. 50s experiments were carried out in teaching children 6 years old and learning a foreign language in kindergarten.

In 1960, the Research Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR was created. Its employees, together with specialists from the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, created a unified program for the education of children in preschool institutions, aimed at eliminating the disunity in educational work with children of early and preschool age.

The emergence of the research institute of preschool education contributed to a significant increase in the study of various aspects of preschool childhood. The attention to the psychological aspects of the preschooler's development has increased. The works of A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonina, L.I. Wenger, H.H. Poddyakov.

In the 2nd floor. 70s Zaporozhets developed the concept of enriching child development from the first years of life (developmental amplification). Its implementation requires a search for reserves of the preschooler's capabilities, taking into account his age and individual characteristics as much as possible. The most important areas of research in modern preschool pedagogy: the formation of visual-figurative thinking as the basis of conceptual thinking, the development of stable moral habits, the development of creative imagination, the widespread use of play for the purpose of education and training.

Since the mid-80s. a broad social pedagogical movement arose, which also embraced the system of preschool education. Changing approaches to the goals, content and means of upbringing leads to the emergence of new concepts of preschool education, characterized by an orientation toward recognizing the intrinsic value of preschool childhood, toward the need to abandon authoritarian methods, toward rejection of ideological extremes in the content of education and training, toward creating opportunities for freer education. natural positions of the participants in the pedagogical process - the child and the educator.

The emergence of preschool pedagogy as a science dates back to the century when the Czech teacher JAN AMOS KOMENSKY (1592-1670) created the first system of preschool education. In his writings, Ya.A. Komensky outlined progressive ideas about the development and upbringing of a child:

The Swiss teacher HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) attached great importance to preschool education,

Abstractness. The great merit of the German teacher was the variety of types of children's activities and occupations introduced by him: this is work with gifts - building materials, outdoor games, modeling, weaving from paper, etc.

MARIA MONTESSORI (1870-1952) - Italian teacher, theorist of preschool education, in the book "Children's Home. Method of Scientific Pedagogy" outlined her system of preschool education.

Her progressive ideas:

By defining a passive role for the educator and assigning the function of activity to your did. material, Montessori at the same time demanded the arming of educators with the method of observation, the development of their interest in the manifestations of children;

Cheat sheets

Material from the site shporiforall.ru

Cheat sheets for preschool pedagogy - 4. The history of the development of preschool pedagogy as a science abroad (J. A. Comenius, I. G. Pestalozzi, R. Owen, J.-J. Rousseau, F. Frebel, M. Montessori). - Literature for the student.

Cheat sheets for preschool pedagogy - 4. The history of the development of preschool pedagogy as a science abroad (J. A. Comenius, I. G. Pestalozzi, R. Owen, J.-J. Rousseau, F. Frebel, M. Montessori).

Page 4 of 634. The history of the development of preschool pedagogy as a science abroad (J. A. Comenius, I. G. Pestalozzi, R. Owen, J.-J. Rousseau, F. Frebel, M. Montessori).

He pointed out the need to take into account the age and individual characteristics of children;

Developed age periodization, which includes four age periods: childhood, adolescence, adolescence, maturity. Each period spanning six years is associated with a specific school.

For children from birth to 6 years old, there is a "mother school"

He put forward the idea of naturedifferent upbringing;

The manual "The Visible World in Pictures" created by him laid the foundation for the visual acquaintance of children with the objects and phenomena of the surrounding life; ,

He substantiated the need for widespread use of visual methods in upbringing and educational work with children;

He considered the development of the sense organs, speech and ideas about the environment to be an important task in the upbringing of children under 6 years of age;

Swiss teacher HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) attached great importance to preschool education,

He put forward the idea of combining productive labor with training;

He developed the idea of elementary education, according to which all knowledge is based on the basic elements: form, number and counting. Initial training should build on these elements;

Paid great attention to the development of tasks, content and methods of preschool education of a child in a family;

In mental education, he put forward the development of thinking, mental abilities, the ordering of ideas in the first place;

The purpose of a person is to reveal the divine principle inherent in him. Education should contribute to the creative self-disclosure of the personality and instincts and abilities inherent in the child, and not determine them.

Froebel considered play as the basis for raising a child in kindergarten, through which the divine principle inherent in the child is revealed, he considered play as one of the means of moral education, believing that in collective and individual games, imitating adults, the child is affirmed in the rules and norms of moral behavior. For the development of a child at an early age, he offered six "gifts." The use of this manual helps the development of building skills in children and at the same time creates in them ideas about form, size, spatial relationships, numbers. The disadvantage of these gifts is the contrived symbolic justification, dryness,

abstractness. The great merit of the German teacher was the variety of types of children's activities and activities introduced by him: this is work with gifts - building materials, outdoor games, modeling, weaving from paper, etc.

MARIA MONTESSORI (1870-1952) - Italian teacher, theorist of preschool education, in the book "Children's Home. Method of Scientific Pedagogy" outlined her system of preschool education.

Her progressive ideas:

Introduced monthly anthropometric measurements for the first time;

Created didactic material aimed at exercises of the tactile-muscular sense.

There are also negative aspects in Montessori theory:

Strictly differentiated between work and play and did not use play in the learning process;

She did not attach positive significance to children's creative play, which makes her theory one-sided, and the pedagogical process does not satisfy the natural needs of young children;

She excluded from her theory the consideration of the development of coherent children's speech, the introduction of children to the artistic creativity of the people, literary works;

She believed that from 3 to 6 years old is not the age of acquiring knowledge, but the period of formal exercise of all aspects of mental activity, which are stimulated by the sensory sphere.

Robert Owen organized the first preschool institutions for the children of workers, where he raised them in a team spirit, instilled in them work skills, taking into account their interests and using games and entertainment in working with them as an important educational factor.

We examined the most progressive and world-famous pedagogical theories that form the basis of preschool pedagogy.

Material from the site geum.ru

Preschool education in Russia - Wikipedia

The history of preschool education in Russia before 1917

In the last third of the 19th century, following the countries of Western Europe, new types of educational institutions appeared in Russia. The first free, "people's kindergarten" in Russia for children of urban residents from the lower strata of the population was opened in 1866 at the charitable "Society of Cheap Apartments" in St. Petersburg. In the same year, A.S. Simonovich opened a paid private kindergarten for children of the intelligentsia.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, a fairly large number of preschool institutions were opened in Russia, both paid for the intelligentsia and the emerging bourgeoisie, and free kindergartens, playgrounds, shelters, centers for children of the lower strata of the population, as well as for orphans.

In the same years, the method of preschool education emerged, the first magazine where systematic notes on the forms and methods of teaching preschool children were published was “Kindergarten” edited by A. Simonovich. the authority of the publication was quite high, as evidenced by the participation in its work and publication of K. D. Ushinsky.

In 1871, the St. Petersburg Society for the Promotion of the Initial Education of Preschool Children was created. The Society promoted the opening of courses for the training of women educators in families and kindergartens, as well as lectures on preschool education.

By 1914, several dozen kindergartens were operating in the country. In 1913-1917, the famous Russian teacher Elizaveta Ivanovna Tikheeva, who studied the issues of didactics and methods of primary education, was the Vice-President of the St. Petersburg Society for the Promotion of Preschool Education. From 1913, she directed a kindergarten created under the Society for the Promotion of Preschool Education, which she directed after 1917 until 1928.

The beginning of the state system of preschool education in our country was laid after the adoption on December 20, 1917 of the "Declaration on preschool education." This document defined the principles of Soviet preschool education: free and accessible public education for preschool children.

In 1918, on the basis of the Moscow Higher Courses for Women, on the initiative of Professor K.N.Kornilov, the second Moscow State University was opened, where a pedagogical faculty with a preschool department was organized. An important milestone in the creation of the state system for training preschool teachers was the first All-Russian Congress on Preschool Education, held in Moscow in 1919. The first "Kindergarten Work Program" was published in 1934, and in 1938 the "Kindergarten Charter" was published, which determined the tasks of work, the structure and features of the functioning of preschool institutions, and the "Guide for kindergarten teachers", which contained guidelines for sections of work with kids. In 1937, by a special resolution of the Council of People's Commissars, departmental kindergartens were introduced, in 1939 standard staffs were established for kindergartens of all types and departments

Since 1928, the monthly scientific and methodological journal "Preschool Education" began to be published. By the 40s of the twentieth century, the network of preschool educational institutions had reached a fairly high level, more than two million pupils were covered by public education.

After the war, the development of the system of public preschool education continued, which, according to the thoughts of communist ideologists, was supposed to replace family education. In 1959, a new type of preschool educational institution appeared - a nursery-kindergarten, where, at the request of parents, children could be brought up from two months to seven years.

This was due to the need to improve the organization of the work of preschool institutions and, in particular, to establish continuity in the upbringing of children of early and preschool age. In the early 60s, a comprehensive kindergarten education program was created, which became a single mandatory document in the work of preschool institutions in the country.

The leading research institutes of preschool education of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences and the leading departments of preschool pedagogy worked on the program. And in 1978, after making further changes, the program was named Typical. It lasted until 1984 when it was superseded by the Model Kindergarten Parenting Program.

In connection with the reform of the education system on the threshold of the 80s-90s, the "Concept of preschool education" emerged. It identifies four basic principles that are fundamental for expert assessments of preschool education in Russia: humanization - the upbringing of a humanistic orientation of the preschooler's personality, the foundations of civicism, industriousness, respect for human rights and freedoms, love for the family, homeland, nature; the developmental nature of education - an orientation towards the personality of the child, the preservation and strengthening of his health, the orientation towards mastering the ways of thinking and activity, the development of speech; differentiation and individualization of education and training - the development of a child in accordance with his inclinations, interests, abilities and capabilities; de-ideologization of preschool education - the priority of universal human values, rejection of the ideological orientation of the content of the educational programs of the kindergarten.

Preschool education in Russia in the XXI century

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Development. Education. Freedom. Talent. »To the history of preschool pedagogy in Russia

By Marcel Pascal | Published 17.11.2010

Mrs Gerke was obnoxious. Some time ago, she opened an institution in St. Petersburg called "kindergarten". The "kindergarten" accepted not only young children, as one would expect, but also ten-year-olds and eleven-year-olds "adolescents and adolescents." “The only thing missing is adult husbands and wives with their babies, so that Mrs. Gerke’s kindergarten is completely childish!” - wrote with indignation in 1868 "Petersburg leaf". - "These are not kindergartens, but children's balls, at which three-four-year-olds are taught to make knixen and similar parquet wisdom!" And despite this (or because of this), Ms. Gerke's business is doing well.

Apparently, Mrs. Gerke was not distinguished by a special desire for pedagogical searches and adherence to any theories. She was seduced by the very name - "kindergarten". Today it is familiar and ordinary, in those years it amazed with its novelty and poetry.

It was first sung in 1840, in German. “Kindergarten” is the name of Friedrich Fröbel, a pupil of the famous Swiss teacher Pestalozzi, his institution for preschool children. Not an "orphanage", not a "school for little ones", not an "educational institution", but something completely unexpected, romantic - a "children's garden", or "kindergarten", as such institutions began to be called in Russia.

The son of a rural pastor, Frobel understood the purpose of the kindergarten almost literally: here children should be raised, taking care of "the first shoots of their thoughts and the first embryos of feelings." And since the latter are delicate and fragile, one of the newspapers of that time explained to the public, it is required "to keep the soil under them in order and open access to clean air to them." With the help of special preschool pedagogy, with the help of the arrangement of kindergartens.

By 1868, when the Petersburg Leaflet, without hesitation in expressions, scolded Mrs. Gerke's enterprise, there were already two well-known private kindergartens in the capital, recognized by society as "real": the kindergarten of Mr. and Mrs. Lugebil and kindergarten of Mrs. Simonovich. And the history of Russian kindergartens was already five years old.

Mr. Lugebil, who was listed as the official owner of the kindergarten, was a renowned professor at St. Petersburg University, and his wife was a “gardener”. (That was the name of the Frebel kindergarten teachers.) Both, due to their origin and level of culture, read German perfectly and were well acquainted with the Froebel system. Ms Lugebil was a consistent Frebelich and firmly adhered to the German parenting system. This allowed critics to reproach her with excessive pedantry.

But it is Mrs. Lugebil who has the palm in the opening of kindergartens in Russia. According to some historical assumptions, the first kindergarten opened on September 27, 1863.

Mrs. Lugebil's kindergarten became known in society only a year after its appearance. In 1864, Nekrasov's Sovremennik was surprised to inform its readers: “We have opened a kindergarten in St. Petersburg, arranged according to the Froebel system.

This garden has existed for more than a year - and, however, hitherto, there was neither a rumor nor a spirit about it. We heard about its existence quite by accident - and, we confess, with great distrust about the usefulness of such a case with us.

Kindergartens are a German fiction ... But at the very first visit to the kindergarten, we were convinced of our doubts ... ". Further, it was told about the benefits of kindergartens for Russian society.

However, the idea of such establishments has long been considered alien in Russia, unable to take root on "Russian soil", and, moreover, questionable from the point of view of its focus. Justifying the fears of Russian conservatives, the German authorities in 1851 ordered the closure of all kindergartens as breeding grounds for "socialist ideas": unfortunately for his undertaking, Froebel considered feasible domestic work useful for raising children and recommended garden work to all children, regardless of class.

Nevertheless, in 1866, another kindergarten was opened in St. Petersburg - according to the press of that time, "the best and wisest" - the kindergarten of Adelaide Simonovich (née Bergman).

The idea of arranging a kindergarten was not borrowed by Simonovich from Messrs. Lugebil and not in the Russian city of St. Petersburg. She learned about kindergartens on her own while living abroad.

Until the late seventies of the 19th century, Russian universities were tightly closed to women. Neither solicitation, nor ability, nor even money helped. The title of home teacher was the pinnacle of a woman's career in those days.

This title Simonovich received, having passed the exam after some time of independent studies. But Adelaide dreamed of higher education. She received a rude refusal on her application to Moscow University.

She was forbidden not only to study with the subsequent receipt of a diploma, but even to attend lectures.

By this time, Adelaide is marrying a young doctor, Yakov Simonovich. And the newlyweds, "burdened by the Russian reality", leave for Switzerland. Switzerland was at that time the only country where women were already admitted to universities.

Moreover, there the Simonovichs hoped to meet with A. Herzen, whom, according to their daughter's recollections, they “worshiped”. In Switzerland, Adelaide listens to lectures by Frebel's niece and gets acquainted with the ideas of organizing kindergartens.

At first, the Simonovichs intended to stay in Switzerland. But Herzen, having met the spouses, advised them to return to their homeland. He believed that in Russia they could bring much more significant benefits to society than abroad.

Adelaide herself was already striving for Petersburg. Now she knew what she was going to do.

In 1866, with the support of her husband, Simonovich opened a kindergarten in St. Petersburg and began to publish the first magazine on preschool pedagogy, which is called in the same way - "Kindergarten".

With the help of the magazine, Simonovich creates a publicistic space for the rooting and development of the idea of a kindergarten in Russia. She tells her readers about Fröbel, about the organization of kindergartens in different European countries, about the characters of young children, about the principles and methods of upbringing and how to combine the German idea with Russian traditions and ideas.

Publishing the magazine required a tremendous amount of effort. The doctor and the gardener did not have the means to hire assistants. The Simonovichs brought the print run home from the printing house, packed parcels themselves for subscribers, wrote the addresses themselves and took the parcels to the post office.

After thirty years of her teaching and journalistic activity, Adelaida Semyonovna was forced to admit:

“Here, in Russia, kindergartens have not taken root. While the capitals of Western Europe count thousands of children attending kindergartens, and small towns are replete with such institutions, in our capitals barely two or three hundred children attend kindergartens, and in the provinces they are almost completely absent. (...) As long as the intelligent part of society is not interested in kindergartens, they cannot arise for the people, because there are no seminaries, no teachers, no warehouses with cheap materials. "

The intellectual part of the pre-revolutionary society did not show due attention to the arrangement of kindergartens, although in the 70s of the 19th century, Frebelian societies began to appear in different cities of Russia. The societies established courses for the training of gardeners, organized children's parties, published children's books, and organized summer playgrounds and nature excursions for children from the poor.

Kindergartens have evolved along with the economy, philanthropy and education for women. The revolution changed the possible course of events.

The idea of a kindergarten is one of the few ideas of the "old life" that the organizers of the new Soviet state liked. But, like Mrs. Gerka, they realized it by virtue of their own understanding of affairs, only on a different scale.

By the beginning of the 1920s, only one name and the principles of collective and labor education, brought to the point of absurdity, remained from the Frebel kindergartens. The gardeners "from the intelligent strata of society" were replaced by new educators, whose main advantages were ideological savvy and proletarian origin.

Adelaide Simonovich outlived many of her companions in preschool education and died in 1933, at the age of ninety. Biographers omit details of her post-revolutionary life. So it is not known whether she considered her dream to come true.

As a reminder of the times that have sunk into oblivion, there is a portrait by Valentin Moskva, Simonovich's nephew, whom she raised together with six of her own children. Adelaide Semyonovna is reading in the portrait. Perhaps the writings of Froebel.

We would like to draw your attention to a textbook for students of pedagogical schools and students of institutes, as well as practicing teachers in preschool education. In it, in an accessible form, in detail, with the involvement of practical examples, the basic concepts of the subject, modern requirements for the development of the child in the light of school reform are set out. The book will help broaden the horizons of preschool educators, enrich them with the experience of modern pedagogical thought.

CHAPTER 1. FORMATION OF PRESCHOOL PEDAGOGY AS A SCIENCE. BACKGROUND

PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION

The first educational systems were formed back in antiquity (VI-V centuries BC). There are known Roman, Athenian, Spartan schools, which differed among themselves in the methods and content of teaching, as well as its goals. So, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle spoke about the unity of physical education, personal education and social education. At the same time, he emphasized that "the education of the body contributes to the education of the spirit." Another philosopher, Democritus, argued that the process of education and upbringing transforms human nature, forms the desire to comprehend the unknown, a sense of responsibility and duty. He emphasized that education leads to the possession of three treasures: "to think well", "to speak well", "to do well." The philosophers of ancient Rome also paid great attention to the problem of raising children. Thus, Plutarch spoke of the enormous importance of teaching and raising a child in a family. He was opposed to harsh upbringing (he believed that violence, cruel punishments in relation to children should be avoided) and a supporter of the promotion of obedience. At the same time, he emphasized the need for maternal education: "A mother should remain the breadwinner for her own children." Seneca assigned education to the role of forming an independent personality, emphasizing the importance of the growing generation's comprehension of moral foundations. He considered the main method of education to be a conversation with vivid examples from real life. The ancient Roman philosopher Quintillian compared a child to a “precious vessel” that can contain everything good or bad. That is why he believed that the role of education is to develop the positive qualities of human nature. He emphasized the need to combine the upbringing of the child and the natural kindness of the human being. Almost all philosophers of antiquity believed that the main task of upbringing was the development of good, positive character traits, obedience to the law, respect for elders, mentors, as well as the suppression of bad inclinations in a developing personality. It is these postulates of pedagogical science that have passed the test of time from the era of antiquity to the present day.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

In Kievan Rus, the upbringing of children of all ages was carried out mainly in the family. The purpose of upbringing was to prepare children for work, fulfillment of basic social roles. Religious education was of great importance. Factors of folk pedagogical culture (nursery rhymes, pestushki, tongue twisters, riddles, fairy tales, folk games, etc.) were the main means of influence. All these pedagogical tools were transmitted orally. In connection with the baptism of Rus, the church took a significant place in the upbringing of the younger generation. There were such means as performing rituals, memorizing prayers, etc. In the XI century. in Russia, the first popular schools were opened, which trained children from the upper classes. The "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh to his children" is dated to the twelfth century. Vladimir Monomakh wrote instructions for his children, but many of the teachings are of a general pedagogical nature. In Russia at that time, literate people were highly valued. In the epic "About the violent young man Vasily Buslaev" there are the following words: "... his mother gave him to learn to read and write, he went into science. She planted to write with a pen, the letter to Vasily went into science. I gave it to singing to teach, singing to science went ". Even then, there were literacy masters in Russia. They taught the children of wealthy parents at home. The basis of such training was religious books. In the XVI century. typography appeared. In 1572 the first Russian textbook "ABC" by Ivan Fedorov was published. Around the same time, the collection "Domostroy" was published. It outlined the main directions of family education and behavior in family life. "Domostroy" isolated the comfort of home from the surrounding world, recommended cruel forms of treatment of household members (husband and wife, father with children). The children were brought up love for God, fear of him, unquestioning obedience to elders. However, there were some positive provisions in Domostroy. It gave advice on educating politeness, teaching housework and crafts. In Southwestern and Western Russia, which later went to the Polish-Lithuanian state, education developed more successfully and much more democratic. On the basis of religious brotherhoods, schools operated where children of different classes studied. The school charter stated that the teacher has no right to make a distinction between the poor and the rich; he should punish them not with tyranny, but with instructions: “Not beyond measure, but according to strength; not by excitement, but meekly and quietly. " These schools were distinguished by a fairly high level of organization, a teaching schedule, a well-thought-out methodology, in other words, a class-lesson system was born. In the second half of the 17th century. Greek-Latin and grammar schools appeared in Moscow. In 1686 the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened. This academy was considered a significant educational institution; Lomonosov, Magnitsky (the creator of the first mathematical textbook) and other prominent figures studied there. In Russia, more books began to be published - educational and home education. So, for study and home reading, "Amusing maps" were published (texts on geography, history, images of natural conditions, stories about the occupations of residents of different countries). Around the same time, Epiphany Slavnitsky compiled the pedagogical book Citizenship of Childhood Customs. It outlined the rules for the behavior of children in society (child hygiene, the meaning of facial expressions, facial expressions, postures; rules of behavior in various situations, etc.). The collection contains a chapter on games. It provides guidance on games for preschool children. Slavnitsky's advice is psychologically grounded and imbued with a loving attitude towards children.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION AT THE BEGINNING OF XVIII-LATE XVIII centuries

At the beginning of the 18th century. there was a rapid development and change in Russia under the influence of the reforms carried out by Peter I. One of the areas of reform is education. At this time, a large number of educational institutions were opened in Russia, a lot of scientific and educational literature (translated) was published. A new civil alphabet was introduced. Books and the first newspapers were printed on it. In 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences for the lower strata was created in Moscow (Leonty Magnitsky). In 1715, the Maritime Academy was created in St. Petersburg. In 1725 the Academy of Sciences with a university and gymnasiums was founded. Preschool education at this time did not stand out as independent, but was carried out under the influence of general pedagogical branches. Pedagogical ideas were expressed and published by the best representatives of that time. MV Lomonosov (1711-1765) was an encyclopedic scientist, was active in scientific and educational activities. Lomonosov wrote many books and scientific works, compiled textbooks of grammar, rhetoric, physics, wonderful for his time. Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy (1704-1795) - one of the most enlightened people of his time. He received his education abroad, mainly in France. From Catherine II he received the task to transform the existing education system in Russia. He was the founder of the Smolny Institute. Other educational institutions were created following the example of Smolny. His main pedagogical ideas are as follows.

1. For the successful upbringing of children, you should isolate them from the "depraved" influence of the environment. For this, closed educational institutions should be created, children from 5-6 years old should be placed there and 10-15 years old should be supported.

2. The main tasks of upbringing are "upbringing of the heart", hygienic upbringing, upbringing of industriousness.

3. Rejection of physical punishment: "Once and for all, introduce the law and strictly approve it - never and never beat children."

Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818) was an educator who, among other things, was engaged in the publication of literature for children. He was the founder of the first Russian magazine, Children's Reading for Mind and Heart. Novikov contributed to the development of pedagogical science. In the field of preschool education, a significant place is occupied by his article on the upbringing of children "For the dissemination of general useful knowledge and general well-being." This article formulates the rules for parents: “Do not extinguish the curiosity of your children, exercise your children in the use of feelings (joy, emotions); beware of giving children false knowledge, it is much better not to know than to know wrong; do not teach children what they cannot understand because of their age ”. In 1763, the first educational home was opened in Russia. It accommodated children from 2 to 14 years old. They were divided into groups: from 2 to 7; from 7 to 11; from 11 to 14 years old. Until the age of 2, children were brought up by nurses. Children of the first group were brought up in games and labor affairs: boys were taught gardening and gardening; girls - to household chores and home economics. From the age of 7 to 11, in addition to labor matters, one hour a day was introduced to teach literacy and numeracy. Children from 11 to 14 years old studied more serious business. The number of such houses grew rapidly, as there were many orphans. But the state released scanty funds for their maintenance, and there was a high mortality rate in the houses.

FIRST EDUCATION SYSTEM

In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created for the first time in Russia, and the education system began to take shape. In 1804, all of Russia was divided into 6 educational districts in accordance with universities: Moscow, Kazan, Petersburg, Kharkov, Vilensky, Derpt. A system of subjects was created for state educational institutions:

1) parish schools (1 year);.

2) county schools (2 years);

3) provincial gymnasiums (4 years);

4) universities (3 years).

In 1832, a small experimental school for young children was opened at the Gatchina orphanage. They were there all day - eating, drinking, the little ones playing, mostly outdoors; the elders were taught to read, write, count and sing. A significant place in the daily routine was given to stories and conversations. The school did not last long, but it showed the success of such activities with preschool children. Ushinsky and Odoevsky spoke positively about the school's activities. Vladimir Fedorovich Odoevsky (1803-1863) - a prominent figure in Russian culture, teacher and talented writer. He owns many works for children, including the famous "Tales of Grandfather Irenaeus". VG Belinsky highly appreciated this work. Odoevsky's fairy tales introduced real phenomena and objects, expanded the circle of knowledge, developed imagination, thinking, and brought up moral qualities. Vladimir Fedorovich Odoevsky was the organizer and head of the first orphanages for children from poor families with parents. He developed a regulation on shelters and an "Order to persons directly in charge of the shelter", some methods regulating the activities of shelters. Odoevsky singled out the following tasks for shelters.

1. Provide shelter to poor children left without supervision during their parent's daytime work.

2. To instill a sense of good morality through games.

3. To teach to order and neatness.

4. Develop mental abilities.

5. Provide children with basic knowledge of craft and handicraft skills.

6. The residence time is from 7 to 20 hours.

In the first half of the XIX century. a number of public figures, representatives of culture and teachers appeared in Russia, each of whom contributed to the development of pedagogy in general and preschool pedagogy in particular. VG Belinsky (1811-1848) - outlined the age periodization (from birth to 3 years - infancy; from 3 to 7 years - childhood; from 7 to 14 - adolescence). He attached great importance to the mental and physical development of preschoolers, visualization and children's games, aesthetic education. He was a supporter of family education and assigned a large role in the upbringing of a preschooler to his mother. A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) - was also a supporter of family education: "A child, without taking a woman out of the house, turns her into a civilian." He wrote the pedagogical work "Conversation with Children". NI Pirogov (1810–1881) attached great importance to the role of the mother in the upbringing of preschool children. He spoke about the need for the pedagogical training of mothers. He believed that play takes an important place in the development of preschoolers. L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) - a supporter of family education, promoted the ideas of J. J. Rousseau about free education. Tolstoy criticized the Frebel system, he himself tried to engage in pedagogical activity, organizing the Yasnaya Polyana school. KD Ushinsky (1824–1870) made an enormous contribution to the development of domestic pedagogy, primarily school pedagogy. He was a supporter of family education, but he understood the need to create a system of preschool public education. For this he studied the works of F. Frebel. He expressed views on the activities of preschool educators. Prepared a book for children's reading and learning "Rodnoe slovo". This book has retained its significance to this day.

PRESCHOOL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA: from 1860 to 1917

In Russia in the 60s. XIX century. the first kindergartens began to open. They worked according to F. Frobel's system, but some developed their own methodological ideas. Kindergartens were paid, private. In 1866-1869. a special pedagogical journal "Kindergarten" was published. Its editors are A.S. Simonovich and L.M. Simonovich. AS Simonovich opened several kindergartens. One of them existed in St. Petersburg from 1866 to 1869. At the same time, the first free kindergarten for the children of female workers in St. Petersburg was opened. Unfortunately, despite the positive experience, the gardens did not last long. Shelters and educational gardens were more widespread. In a word, the practice of preschool education in Russia developed slowly, while the theory and methodology were much more intensive. AS Simonovich (1840-1933), on the basis of her pedagogical activity, developed some pedagogical and methodological approaches to the organization of preschool education. She believed that up to 3 years old a child should be brought up in a family, but further education should go outside the family, as he needs comrades, peers for games and classes. Children must be in kindergarten from 3 to 7 years old. The purpose of kindergartens is the physical, mental, moral education of preschoolers, their preparation for school. Simonovich also believed that the work of educators in kindergartens and in individual education should be carried out methodically and consistently. She attached great importance to the personality of educators: "An energetic, tireless, inventive teacher gives the kindergarten a fresh flavor and supports the inexhaustible, cheerful activities of children in it." The children's writer E. N. Vodovozova (1844–1923) made a significant contribution to the development of problems in the upbringing of preschoolers. She created essays and stories, remarkable for her time, about nature, about the life of the peoples of Russia and Western European states. The formation of her pedagogical views was greatly influenced by KD Ushinsky and VI Vodovozov, her future husband. She became a teacher and helped her husband in everything, a talented methodologist of the Russian language and literature. In the late 60s. Vodovozova was abroad and studied the experience of family education and the organization of kindergartens. In 1871, E. N. Vodovozova published the book "The mental and moral education of children from the first appearance of consciousness to school age." The book was intended for kindergarten teachers and mothers. The following parts were highlighted in it:

- mental and moral education of preschoolers;

- the importance of F. Frebel's system, his games and activities;

- an overview of educational toys for children. The book had appendices: tables for organizing manual lessons; songs and notes. It was reprinted many times, with additions and changes. Thus, the 1913 edition included sections in which Vodovozova gave a critical analysis of the theory of "free education" and the system of M. Montessori. E.N. Vodovozova saw the main goal of education in the formation of a future public figure and citizen of her homeland, imbued with the idea of humanity, and therefore demanded from teachers and parents a humane attitude towards children, their professional knowledge and creativity. Education, in her opinion, should begin from the cradle and be built on the basis of the ideas of the nationality. EN Vodovozova herself was involved in the implementation of this idea in preschool education; selected from Russian folklore the appropriate material, riddles, proverbs, folk songs, fairy tales. EN Vodovozova was the first in preschool pedagogy to reveal the problems of mental and moral upbringing from early childhood, and pointed to the close connection between moral and mental upbringing: "A child's actions are often a true mirror of his mental outlook." I considered the best method of upbringing to be an example, not lecture and edification. A large place in the works of E.N. Vodovozova is given to labor education, teaching children to work as they can. She has developed a methodology for preschool education. In physical education, she devoted a large place to outdoor games. She has developed separate recommendations for musical education and introducing children to drawing. Not in all agreeing with F. Frebel, she gave a positive assessment of his methodological developments and didactic material. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. the number of preschool institutions intended for children from poor families began to grow gradually: factory nurseries; folk kindergartens. They appeared mainly in cities with developed industry, where parents were employed in production. In folk kindergartens, there were up to 50 children per teacher, and the groups were of different ages. Children stayed in kindergartens from 6 to 8 hours. Despite poor funding, organizational and methodological difficulties, some teachers were looking for and testing effective programs, methods, materials, and the best forms of organizing work with children. Thus, practical experience was gradually accumulated in the social education of preschool children. Paid kindergartens for children of wealthy parents continued to appear. The paid was a higher level of organization of the upbringing of children. In 1900, the first kindergarten for deaf and dumb children appeared in Moscow. Later, in 1902–1904, similar establishments were opened in St. Petersburg and Kiev. Before the revolution, according to approximate data, there were 250 paid kindergartens and about 30 free kindergartens in Russia. Although public preschool education developed slowly, it nevertheless stimulated domestic pedagogy. A certain contribution to this section of pedagogical science was made by Petr Frankovich Lesgaft, Petr Fedorovich Kapterov, Karl Nikolaevich Ventzel. PF Lesgaft (1837–1909) was a prominent anatomist, biologist, and teacher. In his book "Family Education and Its Significance," he outlined his views on the development of the preschooler. Lesgaft attached great importance to the influence of the environment. Therefore, I saw the main task of parents in creating conditions for upbringing. He considered these conditions: purity, recognition of the child as a person, creation of opportunities for the manifestation of his initiative, consistent educational impact. He denied physical punishment, considered the problem of play and toys as a necessary factor in mental development. He was a supporter of family education, and took the public as a forced measure. In this regard, he believed that "a kindergarten should be like a family." P. P. Kapterov (1849-1922) - teacher of pedagogy and psychology in secondary and higher educational institutions. Studied the problem of school pedagogy. He wrote several works on preschool education: "The tasks and foundations of family education"; "On children's games and entertainment"; "On the nature of children." The main merit of P.P. Kapterov was that he first attempted to determine how pedagogical activity changes and becomes more complicated as children grow up. KN Wentzel (1857-1947) - a supporter of the theory of family education. His work "Liberation of the Child" and a number of others substantiated the activities of free child homes. Children from 3 to 13 years old could visit these houses. There they could play, unite in interest groups, engage in industrial work, talk with adults and thus acquire some knowledge and skills. Systematic training was not intended. Parents were encouraged to study with their children. Despite the "utopianism" of ideas, there were positive aspects in the works of K. N. Venttsel - principles and methods of an individual approach were developed, techniques were proposed aimed at developing the creative abilities of children. A prominent scientist and practitioner who devoted her entire life to preschool education was E. I. Tikheeva (1866-1944). She created an original theory of early childhood education. The main ideas of this theory: continuity of upbringing in kindergarten, family, school; a special place in the methodology for the development of speech of a preschooler. In 1913, the first edition of her book "Native Speech and the Ways of Its Development" was published. This book has been supplemented and republished several times. The last edition came out in 1937. Some of the provisions of this book have retained their significance to this day. Tikheeva was an ardent supporter of public education. In her book "Modern kindergarten, its importance and equipment" she outlined recommendations for organizational work in a preschool institution. Tikheeva studied the activities and pedagogical views of M. Montessori. Disagreeing on the whole with her approaches, she positively assessed the didactic tools for organizing sensory education. Moreover, EI Tikheeva developed her own original system of means for organizing sensory education. She attributed great importance in preschool education to reasonable discipline and a clear daily routine. She considered them to be a means of forming habits and will. EI Tikheeva attached great importance to the special professional pedagogical training of educators. Luiza Yarkovna Shlyager (1863-1942) - theorist and practitioner of preschool pedagogy - also wrote works on preschool education: "Materials for conversations with young children", "Practical work in kindergarten." Julia Ivanovna Bauzel, a follower of the ideas of M. Montessori, was engaged in the practical implementation of these ideas in the activities of kindergartens in Russia.

THE STATE OF PRESCHOOL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA UP TO THE 1990s

In 1918, a special preschool department was organized under the People's Commissariat for Education. At the same time, departments in professional pedagogical schools for the preparation of kindergarten teachers were opened. The preschool institute (research) under the direction of Konstantin Ivanovich Kornilov also began its work. KI Kornilov (1879-1957) was a staunch supporter of social education. He owns the works: "Public education of proletarian children", "Essay on the psychology of a child of preschool age", "Methodology for the study of a child of early age." These works were of great importance in the development of the problems of preschool pedagogy; they were very popular. At this time, a museum for preschool education was created. The initiator was Evgeny Abramovich Arkin (1873-1948). EA Arkin did a great deal of work on the study of the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the preschooler. His fundamental work "Preschool age, its features and hygiene" (1921) became an excellent guide for children's doctors and educators. EA Arkin advocated a close connection between physiology and psychology: "He who does not know physiology will not know psychology, and vice versa." The pedagogical department of the museum was headed by Evgenia Aleksandrovna Flerina, an artist by training. She began her teaching career in 1915 and did a lot to train personnel for kindergartens, methodically organized activities in them. Her work on the role of toys in the development of preschoolers is well known. At this time, the main type of preschool institution (hereinafter - DU) was determined - a 6-hour kindergarten (hereinafter - DS). Requirements for the organization, content and methods of work were set out in the "Instructions for the management of the outbreak and DS". In accordance with this instruction, methodological manuals were developed. In 1921-1940. there is a significant increase in the number of remote controls. Gardens and hearths began to shift to an 11-12-hour working day. At the house administrations, children's rooms were organized, where mothers could bring their children in the evening. Summer playgrounds were opened in the villages. A significant number of DCs became departmental. They were opened on the basis of large enterprises and industries. Purposeful training of personnel has intensified. An idea of the growth in the number of children in DS can be obtained from the following table.

The weak point in the activity of preschool education remained the definition of the content of the education of preschoolers (development of educational programs). In 1937, the first attempt was made to develop a draft program at the DU. In the first part, the main types of activity were determined (social and political, labor and physical education, musical and visual studies, mathematics, literacy). In the second part, recommendations were given on the basics of planning activities through "Organizing moments".

In 1938, the charter of the educational institution and program and methodological instructions were developed under the title "Guide for kindergarten teachers". It included 7 sections.

1. Physical education.

3. Development of speech.

4. Drawing.

5. Modeling and classes with other materials.

6. Music lessons.

7. Acquaintance with nature and development of initial mathematical knowledge.

The war interrupted the activities for the development of preschool pedagogy and the formation of preschool education. However, in 1944, a new charter and new guidelines for educators were adopted. A significant improvement to this guide was that the activities of the children were specified according to age groups.

In the post-war years, there has been a significant increase in DU. The table gives an idea of the development.

In 1954, the manual for educators was republished, intensive work continued on the creation of a programmatic and methodological approach to education. Much credit for this belongs to Alexandra Platonovna Usova (1888-1965). Particularly famous were her methodological works "Classes in a kindergarten", "Teaching in a kindergarten".

In 1963-1964. the first comprehensive program "Education in DS" was developed and tested. As a result of the improvement of this program, the program "Education and Training in DS" was created. The following table gives an idea of the growth in the number of DSs and the number of children employed in the preschool education system:

CURRENT STATE OF THE PRESCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM

Since the mid-1980s. in our country, radical changes have taken place in all aspects of society, including in the education system. These changes are both positive and negative.

In 1983, the Education Act was passed. It formulates new principles of state policy in the field of education, enshrines the rights of teachers, parents, students and preschoolers in this area. The law approved the right of teachers to freely choose the content of education and its methodological research. He formulated the principles of diversity of types of childcare (DS with priority implementation, DS of compensated type, DS-school, etc.). The law enshrines the right of parents to choose an educational institution.

Since the 1980s, many complex and partial educational programs have been created and tested. Intensive work is underway to create methodological programs. At the same time, a negative trend is observed in the preschool education system: a decrease in the number of childcare facilities and the number of children in them. In January 2000, an All-Russian meeting of people's educational institutions was held. The following indicators were given for preschool education:

The table shows that not only the number of DSs has significantly decreased, but also their occupancy. In general, according to the indicators of 2000-2001. the preschool education system covers about 60% of children. The number of departmental gardens transferred to municipal bodies has sharply decreased. The payment for the maintenance of children has increased significantly. Preschool institutions are insufficiently funded by the state and authorities. The level of salaries of educators is low.

PRESCHOOL ABROAD

Currently, there are systems of preschool education in most countries of the world. It should be noted that the preschool education system in any country has developed less intensively than the education system as a whole. The level of preschool education varies from country to country. There are many reasons for this:

- the attitude of the state and society to the upbringing of preschoolers;

- the socio-economic situation in society;

- traditions and culture of the country;

- climate, etc.

In order to understand the peculiarities of the education system abroad, let us turn to examples.

USA

The first DS appeared in America in 1855. It was created by German emigrants. This garden worked according to the Froebel system and became the impetus for the development of preschool education. By the end of the XIX century. the number of kindergartens increased significantly, they were created for children from the poor, where women were employed in industrial production.

By the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. in every big city there was one or more public DCs, schools began to be created. At the same time, American teachers abandoned the Froebel system and began to develop their own directions in preschool pedagogy. Modern DCs in the USA operate on the basis of various centers organized in the premises and at DC sites and designed to organize any action.

1. Center "Sociogram", or "Center for the organization of a complex role-playing game."

2. Puppet theater.

3. Center for Art.

4. Culinary Center.

5. The center of the game with sand and water.

6. Scientific and Mathematical Center.

7. Center for construction and design.

DS, as a rule, are small in terms of occupancy. Organization of work with children is designed for independence. Let us show this using the example of the mode:

7.00 - reception of children of all groups on the site;

7.00-9.00 - children play freely on the playground, indoors;

9.00 - the school day begins. Everyone sits on the carpet, the teacher greets the children, everyone remembers together what day it is, the date, the famous date. The teacher encourages children to talk about what is important to them and talks about it himself. Further - independent work;

10.15 (after 45 minutes) - work in the centers ends, the children clean up after themselves and go out for a walk.

During this time, children eat 2 breakfasts brought from home. Parents pick up the bulk of the children at 12.30. The rest brush their teeth, wash their hands, and go to the "quiet hour". There is no special place. They take mattresses and place them wherever they want;

14.30 - juice, fruit. Then they walk, mold, paint, play;

16.00 - leaving home.

- in which center to play;

- with whom to do and what;

- what to talk about, etc.

Children are brought up interethnic and interreligious tolerance (tolerance). In this regard, DU strives to celebrate national holidays of all peoples inhabiting the United States.

In America, a lot of attention is paid to the protection of children. In this regard, classes are organized for them according to the type of OBZH.

In the United States, children with mental or physical disabilities are included in regular classes and groups. American teachers believe that normal children develop a sense of tolerance, while children with developmental abnormalities expand their communication and developmental environments.

If we evaluate preschool pedagogy as a whole, then it is based on the idea of a constructivist approach. The essence lies in the independence and initiative of children.

France

The first preschool institution appeared in France in 1770. It was a “knitting school” organized by the church, in which children from 4 to 7 years old were taught crafts, numeracy, and literacy. The education system began to develop quite actively in 1826. DCs were opened for children of the poor, first in Paris, then in other industrial cities. In 1830, the state began to take preschool institutions under its tutelage. In 1843, the Ministry of Education was in charge of about 900 DSs, in which over 100 thousand children were brought up.

The works of Polina Kergomar (1838–1925) occupy a very prominent place in preschool pedagogy. She developed the organizational and substantive foundations of a new type of children's institutions "Mother's School". She suggested introducing play into education as the main method and form of working with children, pointed out the need to take into account the mental characteristics of children, and was opposed to corporal punishment.

Children are brought to child care from the age of 2. In the daily routine, the main form of interaction between children and educators is classes. In the classroom, they master various knowledge and skills. For example:

- for children from 2 to 3 years old: speech lessons, which use counting rhymes, nursery rhymes, finger games, stories and stories of adults, slides, activities for sensory development (drawing, stringing beads, etc.);

- for children from 4 to 5 years old, classes become more complicated, new topics appear related to the development of numbers, numbers, counting, classifications of various kinds, the development of foreign languages, etc., begins;

- children from 5 to 6 years old are being prepared for school, some preschool educational institutions are organized at schools.

The French system of preschool education is criticized for excessive academicism, rather strict discipline, for the fact that children are given little freedom of choice. Modern researchers and educational practitioners strive to overcome these shortcomings, but see freedom as a mandatory fulfillment of what the child has chosen.

Germany

It is known that Germany is the ancestor of DS and preschool pedagogy, therefore, F. Frebel's system, to some extent, has survived to this day. Currently, 2 preschool education systems coexist in Germany (one in West Germany, the other in East Germany).

In East Germany, the education system was modeled on the Soviet Union. With all the pros and cons of this system, it was distinguished by its systematic and consistent nature, active interaction between the educator and the children, discipline, and a good level of preparedness for children and adults. West Germans criticized East Germans for being too organized, having no free choice, and children being brought up according to a standard.

In West Germany, after the defeat of fascism, a free education system was created. In preschool pedagogical education, they did not work according to special programs, and personnel training was poorly carried out. The overwhelming majority of DS worked half a day, only 12% - all day.

In general, preschool education covers a small number of children. To get an idea of the DS, consider the mode:

- 8.00–10.00 - free play, communication (construction, role-playing, board-printed games);

- 10.00–11.00 - indoor activities (reading, drawing, manual labor);

- 11.00–12.00 - walk.

China

The period from 1945 to 1990 is characterized by a fairly intensive development of DSs, but their material and technical support was at a low level, and the personnel were poorly trained. In China, the quality of upbringing was considered a prejudice. From 1965 to 1976, a cultural revolution took place in China. The whole society, all structures, including the preschool education system, suffered. It narrowed significantly, education was reduced to memorizing revolutionary and militaristic poems praising Mao Zedong.

The modernization of the entire life of the country that has begun has also affected the education system. At present, a wide network of preschool institutions has been created in China, professionally trained teachers work in them, the premises are well equipped and provided with a comfortable existence.

The content of education is the development of hygiene skills, physical education, the development of speech, the formation of ideas about nature and society. Considerable attention is paid to a clear definition of moral qualities that should be formed in preschoolers. The Chinese attach great importance to the musical education of children, considering musical ability as the basis for the development of other abilities.

DS work according to a clearly defined daily routine; collective forms of work with students prevail. Children wear the same clothes. Many researchers of preschool pedagogy argue that the Chinese education system is distinguished by its severity, sluggishness, over-organization, and lack of an individual approach. But Chinese parents do not think so: “One child in the family runs the risk of becoming an egoist,” and the education system will help correct this deficiency.

Currently, a system of children's education has been established in most developed and developing countries. The level of development, the system of preschool education and the coverage of children by it in different countries are different. For example, in Japan, the education system is well developed and covers up to 95% of children. The Japanese pay great attention to the upbringing of children in a team, their socialization, aesthetic education, and preparation for school. The Japanese preschool education system provides freedom to preschool children, so educators do not comment on them, allowing them to independently resolve conflicts.

The system of preschool education in England is quite developed, but it has the character of preparation for school, therefore, the overwhelming number of DS are at schools. Education systems are emerging in countries such as Turkey, Finland, Spain. The peculiarity of Finnish DS is their high environmental friendliness, openness to society, nature and culture. The Finnish authorities take care not only of children, but also of preschool workers.

MODERN DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN PEDAGOGICAL THEORY OF UPBRINGING AND DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD

Many domestic and foreign psychologists and educators pay attention to the personal aspects of a child's development. One of the questions that interested scientists was the following: is the child able to understand and take into account someone else's point of view? This ability, as almost all researchers are convinced, is an important component of the cognitive, social and personal development of a person. The warehouse of nature, the nature of the personality, largely depends on it. If a person does not want to understand another, is focused on his own interests, he is called an egocentric. Overcoming this attachment to your opinion is called decentration. To accept the position of decentration, you need to overcome great difficulties - to understand, to feel what the partner sees, thinks, feels, to see the situation “through his eyes”.

The outstanding Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget considered egocentrism to be the main feature of the personal and cognitive development of a child under seven years old. His opinion was as follows: a preschooler is not only unable to understand someone's point of view, which is in any way different from his own, but also does not take it into account in his activities.

Are preschoolers really that egocentric, or are their cognitive resources still richer? Without this understanding, both the teachers' understanding of children and the process of teaching and upbringing would be significantly impoverished.

Various researchers have developed methods designed to overcome the egocentrism of preschoolers, which can be used in diagnostic and educational classes.

One of such techniques, proposed by Heinz Wimmer, is the “task of unexpected movement of the hidden”. The following scene is played out in front of the child: one doll, the boy Maxi, hides a chocolate bar in a drawer and leaves the room. Another, mom, puts her in the buffet. Maxi enters the room again. And an adult asks: "Where will Maxi look for a chocolate bar?"

As a rule, three-year-olds who are offered this play situation are wrong. They answer that Maxi will look for a chocolate bar in the buffet. Children rely on what they saw, and do not take into account that Maxi did not see it. Four-year-old children in this situation give the correct answer: Maxi will look for a chocolate bar where he put it and where he saw it for the last time. This situation speaks about the child's ability to take the point of view of another person, about the ability to distract himself from his own knowledge of where the desired object is now.

The director of the Bristol Institute of Education Martin Hughes, Russian teachers (Natalya Mizina (Izhevsk Institute for Teacher Development), etc.) staged game experiments in groups of preschoolers. Their tasks ("Boy and the policemen", "Hide the bunny") require the ability to decentrate, not only in the literal, spatial, sense. The child must take into account the two opposite intentions of the characters: to hide with some and find those who have hidden in others. Not only three-year-olds, but also two-year-olds understand what it means to hide an object or, conversely, to show it, correctly imagine that the other sees and does not see.

Research by Doctor of Psychology Mina Verba (France) showed that during preschool childhood, a child develops skills that allow him not only to help his peers, but also to lead the learning process. However, a complete understanding of how to teach a partner to play takes about five years. During this age period, the child is able to maintain the goal of learning, to provide verbal and non-verbal communication.

According to Kiaran Benson (Ireland), a child's ability to decentrate is a manifestation of not only positive, but also negative aspects of his character. Indeed, in order to come up with an offensive teaser, a child must know what it would be most offensive to hear, and by deliberately breaking someone else's toy, to trace in advance which one is most dear to his peer.

Therefore, the child, either in a positive or negative form, must take into account the needs of the partner, his interests and goals. And this once again shows that, ignoring his abilities for decentration and reflection, adults unwittingly ignore many important aspects of his moral behavior, missing the opportunity not only to teach, but also to educate, and, if necessary, to re-educate.