Anatomical and physiological characteristics of women of mature age. Age physiology of sports for adults and the elderly

TOPIC "Reproductive health of men and women of mature age."

As defined by WHO, reproductive health- this is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not just the absence of diseases or ailments, in all matters concerning the reproductive system, its functions and processes.

Currently, one of the main characteristics of the demographic state of Russia is depopulation, that is, natural population decline. The excess of the death rate over the birth rate has reached 2-fold. Low fertility is a major factor in population decline. Nowadays, reproductive health is becoming an important issue for the general health of the population.

What is the reproductive system- The reproductive system is the most important of the systems that ensure the reproduction of the species. The genitals of men and women are different. Unlike other body systems, the maturation of the reproductive system is a long process, genetically programmed for a certain age of a woman and a man.

Sexual / Health- a complex of physiological, emotional and social aspects of the sexual interaction of people, enriching the personality.

Reproduction- the process of procreation. The role of a man in the reproduction of offspring is the fertilization of the egg with the transfer of the hereditary characteristics of the male individual.

The role of a woman is to provide conditions for pregnancy, growth and development of the fetus, its birth and feeding.

Sex drive. The formation of sexual desire.

Sexuality is a living force of a personality, a means of expressing affection, the ability of each person to discover himself and recognize others, arising from his belonging to a particular gender. Sexuality is a natural and integral part of human nature. It manifests itself in a multifaceted and individual way, is formed from the moment a person is born and accompanies him throughout his life. The manifestations of sexuality are diverse and are due to the physiological and anatomical differences between men and women, their hormonal characteristics, sex roles that they learn and improve throughout their lives (friendship, love, conception and birth of children, family relationships, etc.).

Sexual consciousness is formed throughout life, and in each life period it has its own specifics.

Sexual awareness- This is the idea of ​​oneself as a person of a certain gender. The moment that triggers sexual self-awareness is the simple assignment of the child to the male or female sex. Later, based on elementary imitation and on a conscious correlation with people of the same gender, the child begins to master the sexual role.

The severity of sexual desire in males and females is the same, but its manifestations are specific. For a girl, for example, the characteristic behavioral reactions associated with sexual desire are coquetry, which is based on the urge to attract attention, shyness, shyness, a pronounced need to be liked and look good. A young man usually has a desire to please a particular girl, and not everyone in general, and at the same time has a specific goal.

The formation of libido is closely connected with the development of sexual self-awareness. Libido is the desire for sexual intercourse. There are the following stages of its formation.

1. The romantic stage (or platonic) in young men is characterized by fantasies in which imaginary feats are performed in honor of the idealized object of first love. The girls have a tendency to be liked, to draw attention to themselves, fantasies about disinterested care on the part of a beautiful and brave "knight" appear. The significance of this stage in the formation of libido is in the elevation of the physiological instinct to truly human love. The experiences of first falling in love fill this stage with vivid and unforgettable feelings.

2. The erotic stage is expressed in the desire for tenderness and affection. This stage determines female sexuality for a long time, and in men the need for sexual release is quickly replaced.

3. The sexual stage largely determines the characteristics of adolescence in young men. First of all, this is the phenomenon of the so-called adolescent hypersexuality, manifested in increased sexual excitability in boys - in frequent erections, unbridled erotic fantasies, masturbation. The physiological basis of this phenomenon is considered to be an increase in the secretion of androgens, the level of which in an 18-year-old boy is 8 times higher than that of a 10-year-old boy. It is important to note two features of adolescent and youthful sexuality: first, the experimental nature of their sexual behavior; the second is that erotic needs and interests outpace the development of the emotional sphere and communication skills, on which the possibility of combining physical intimacy with psychological (spiritual) closeness and mutual understanding largely depends.

In a man, the period of puberty is finally completed only by 23 - 25 years, and in a woman by 18 - 20 years. The period of puberty begins. This period is characterized by the flourishing of the female and male body, it falls on the most active period of a person's life. By the beginning of this period, male and female organisms are prepared for the performance of the reproductive function, the creation of a family, and responsible parenting.

Psychologists note that not all the individual properties of men and women are due to their gender. Often they are mediated and modified by environmental conditions, upbringing, occupation, etc. This fully applies to sexual behavior.

Modern methods of population reproduction- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF). Intrauterine insemination with the husband's sperm, fertilization inside the fallopian tube. The methods of modern assisted reproductive technologies are combined based on the pathology of a particular married couple, not only donor sperm are used, but also donor eggs.

Anatomical and physiological features of the reproductive system of men and women in adulthood.

The female reproductive system. In gynecology, all genital organs of a woman are usually divided into external genital organs, accessible to a simple visual examination, and internal genital organs, for the study of which it is necessary to use special medical methods. Traditionally, it is customary to refer to the external genitals, also called the vulva: the pubis, the labia majora, the labia minora, the clitoris, the vestibule of the vagina, the large glands of the vestibule - the so-called Bartholin glands.

The pubis is an elevation rich in subcutaneous fat, located in front above the pubic joint. The upper border of the pubis is the cutaneous groove, the suprapubic fold, on the right and left are the inguinal folds, posteriorly the pubis merges with the labia majora.

The labia majora are two longitudinal folds of the skin that delimit the genital slit from the sides. In front, the large lips pass to the end of the pubis, behind they converge and form a posterior commissure. The space between the labia is called the genital gap. Normally, the labia majora are covered with the small ones. In the thickness of the labia there are large glands of the vestibule - Bartholin's glands.

The labia minora is the second pair of longitudinal skin folds. In front, they bifurcate and form two pairs of legs. The front pair connects above the clitoris, the back pair below it.

The clitoris is a small cone-shaped formation, consisting of two merged cavernous bodies. The clitoris is abundantly supplied with vessels and nerves and is one of the main organs of the sexual sense.

The vestibule of the vagina is a space bounded in front by the clitoris, from the back-posterior commissure of the labia, from the sides by the inner surface of the labia minora. Above, from the side of the vagina, the border of the vestibule is the hymen.

The hymen is a connective tissue membrane that closes the entrance to the vagina in virgins.

The internal genital organs include the vagina, uterus and its appendages (fallopian tubes and ovaries). In addition to the genitals themselves, a woman has tissues and organs that "obey" the ovaries. These are mammary glands, fatty tissue, hair, skin. Strictly speaking, all organs and systems of the female body are subject to sex hormones. But the mammary gland is one of the most important of them, because the breast plays an important role in the process of feeding newborns, that is, in the woman's reproductive system.

The vagina is a hollow tube 9-10 cm long, has 4 walls - 2 lateral, anterior and posterior. The walls of the vagina form 4 vaults together with the cervix. The posterior fornix is ​​the deepest, the contents are taken from it to determine the degree of purity of the vagina. There are 4 degrees of vaginal cleanliness.

The uterus is pear-shaped, 8 cm long, has 4 sections, 2/3 is the body, 1/3 is the neck, there is an isthmus between the uterus and the body. The upper most massive part is called the body of the uterus. The dome-shaped elevating part of the body, located above the lines of attachment of the fallopian tubes, is called the fundus of the uterus.

The cervix has a cylindrical shape. The cervical canal passes through the cervix. , which has an external and internal opening - the throat. The external pharynx has a round or oval shape and is nulliparous and slit-like in those who have given birth.

In the mucous membrane of the uterus, there are 2 layers: functional and basal. The uterus is a receptacle.

The fallopian tube is a paired hollow organ formed from the proximal section of the Müllerian duct. Its length is 7-12 cm. The oocyte enters the fallopian tube after ovulation, an environment is maintained here that promotes the fertilization of the oocyte. The latter moves through the fallopian tube into the uterus. The fallopian tubes and ovaries are called the uterine appendages.

The following sections of the fallopian tubes are distinguished: 1. Interstitial or intramural section - the narrowest section of the fallopian tube, passing in the wall of the uterus; opens into the uterine cavity by the uterine opening. The length of the interstitial region is about 10 mm, the diameter is 0.5-2 mm. 2. The isthmus of the fallopian tube is a fairly narrow section closest to the wall of the uterus. The length of the isthmic section is 2 cm, the diameter is from 2 to 4 mm. 3. The ampulla of the fallopian tube (p-part of the fallopian tube, located between its isthmus and the funnel. The length of the ampullary section is 6-8 cm, diameter is 5-8 mm. In the ampullary section, fertilization takes place.

The ovary is a paired organ located on the side of the uterus. Laterally, it is held by the funnel-pelvic ligament, medially - by its own ligament of the ovary, in front in the area of ​​the gate - by the mesentery of the ovary, formed by the posterior leaf of the broad ligament of the uterus. The ovary is located behind the fallopian tube and its mesentery. The ovarian vessels and plexus approach the gate of the organ through the ligament that suspends the ovary. At reproductive age, the width of the ovary is 1.5-5 cm, the length is 2.5 cm and the thickness is 0.6-1.5 cm. The size of the ovary depends on the level of sex hormones, and therefore on the woman's age and the phase of the menstrual cycle. In young women, they are almond-shaped, dense, gray-pink in color. In girls, the ovaries are small (about 1.5 cm), with a soft surface. The ovaries enlarge to their normal size in the prepubertal period, which occurs due to the proliferation of stromal cells and the onset of follicular maturation

Female pelvis - consists of 4 bones: two pelvic bones, sacrum and coccyx. The pelvic (unnamed) bone up to 16-18 years old consists of three bones: pubic, sciatic and iliac, which are connected by cartilage; after 16-18 years, cartilage ossifies, they grow together, forming the pelvic bone. The bones of the pelvis are connected by joints: the pubic bones - by the pubic joint (symphysis), the sacrum and anonymous bones - by the sacroiliac joints, the sacrum and coccyx - by the suspended sacrococcygeal joint, due to which the coccyx deviates by 1-1.5 cm during childbirth, which increases the direct size of the plane of exit from the small pelvis by a given value.

The pelvis is a receptacle for internal organs: the rectum, bladder, female genital organs and surrounding tissues. The female pelvis forms the birth canal through which the fetus moves during childbirth. The female pelvis has features that come to light in the period of puberty, become apparent in the period of maturity: the bones are thin, smooth, "less massive, the pelvis is lower, wider, larger in volume than the male, the pelvic cavity is in the form of a cylinder, curved anteriorly. Sacrum. wider and not as much concave as in men.

The symphysis is shorter and wider. The sacral promontory protrudes less forward, the entrance to the small pelvis is extensive, has a transverse oval shape. The exit of the female pelvis is wider. The pubic angle is 90-100 degrees. The tailbone protrudes slightly anteriorly. The small pelvis has 4 planes:

The plane of the entrance to the small pelvis;

The plane of the wide part of the small pelvis;

The plane of the narrow part of the small pelvis;

Exit plane from the small pelvis.

The line drawn through all the straight dimensions of the planes is called the wired line of the pelvis.

External dimensions of the pelvis:

Distancia spinarum - the distance between the anterosuperior spines of the iliac crests (25-26 cm);

Distancia cristarum - the distance between the most distant points of the iliac crests (28-29 cm);

Distancia trochanterica - the distance between the large trochanters of the femur (30-31 cm);

Conjugata externa (external) -, - the distance between the upper edge of the pubic articulation and the upper angle of the Michaelis rhombus (20 cm);

true conjugate (vera) - the distance between the upper edge of the pubic articulation and the sacral promontory (11 cm); diagonal conjugate - the distance between the lower edge of the pubic articulation and the sacral promontory (13 cm),

The external conjugate is used to judge the true conjugate,

The Michaelis diamond is a lumbosacral diamond visible on the back in the lumbar region. The upper corner of the rhombus corresponds to the projection over the sacral fossa, the lower __ to the apex of the sacrum, the lateral ones to the posterior superior spines of the iliac crests.

The size of the large pelvis is used to judge the size of the small one, which cannot be measured directly. The passage of the fetal head through the bony birth canal depends on the internal dimensions of the pelvis.

The pelvis is measured with a pelvis meter (instrument for measuring the pelvis).

It has the shape of a compass, equipped with a scale, the ends of the legs of the compass end with buttons.

Introduction

Physiology of sports is a section of human physiology that studies changes in body functions during sports activities and their mechanisms. Sports physiology is closely related to the theory and methodology of physical culture, it equips the athlete and the coach with knowledge about the physiological processes occurring in the athlete's body during training and competitive activities.

Age physiology is a science that studies the characteristics of the vital activity of an organism at different stages of ontogenesis. Such sciences as gerontology and juvenology are closely related to it. Gerontology is the science of aging of living organisms, including humans, and of the prevention of aging processes.

Mature and old age are naturally coming stages of a person's individual development. The processes of maturation and aging are continuous, uneven and non-simultaneous. They affect not equally different tissues, organs and systems of the body.

The first period of mature age includes men and women from 21 to 35 years old, to the second period - women aged 36-55 years old and men - 36-60 years old; the elderly are women aged 56-74 years, and men - 61-74 years old. The period from 75 to 90 years is attributed to old age, and people over 90 years old - to centenarians.

Age physiology as a special scientific discipline

Age physiology studies the characteristics of the vital activity of an organism at different periods of individual development or ontogenesis (Greek: ontos - an individual, genesis - development). The concept of ontogenesis includes all stages of the development of an organism from the moment of fertilization of an egg to the death of a person. Allocate the prenatal stage (before birth) and postnatal (after birth).

Development is understood as 3 main processes: 1) growth - an increase in the number of cells (in bones) or an increase in the size of cells (muscles); 2) differentiation of organs and tissues; 3) shaping. These processes are closely interrelated. For example, the accelerated growth of the body slows down the processes of shaping and differentiation of tissues.

The formation of various organs and systems, motor qualities and skills, their improvement in the process of physical education can be successful, provided that various means and methods of physical culture are scientifically based. It is necessary to take into account the age-sex and individual characteristics of children, adolescents, mature and elderly people, as well as the reserve capabilities of their body at different stages of individual development. Knowledge of such patterns will protect against the use of both insufficient and excessive muscle loads.

The entire life cycle (after birth) is divided into separate age periods. Age periodization is based on a set of signs: the size of the body and individual organs, their mass, ossification of the skeleton (bone age), teething (dental age), development of endocrine glands, degree of puberty, development of muscle strength.

The following age periods are distinguished:

1-10 days - newborn; 10days - 1 year - infancy; 1-3 years - early childhood; 4-7 years old - first childhood; 8-12 years old M and 8-11 years old D - second childhood; 13-16 years old M and 12-15 years old D - adolescents; 17-21 years old boys and 16-20 years old girls - youthful; 22-35 years - the first mature age; 35-60 years for a man and 35-55 years for a woman - the second mature age; 60-74 - elderly; 75-90 - senile; over 90 are long-livers.

The period of puberty (puberty or transitional period) is especially noted. There is a significant hormonal change in the body, the development of secondary sexual characteristics, deterioration of conditioned reflex activity, motor skills, fatigue increases, speech becomes difficult, emotional reactions and behavior are unbalanced. Significant annual increase in body length.

The main patterns of age-related development are periodization and heterochronism (unevenness and different timing of growth and development).

In connection with the main patterns of age periodization, a program is being built for teaching children at school, rationing physical and mental stress, determining the size of furniture, shoes, clothes, etc. misconduct, receive a pension.

Aging processes and life expectancy

There are a number of theories about aging at the cellular, molecular and organismal levels. Common in most of these theories is the recognition of the role of age-related mutations in the genetic apparatus of the cell. However, most researchers believe that aging at the cellular and molecular level occurs more slowly than in the whole organism.

The main theories of aging are as follows. According to the theory of “wear”, in the second half of a person’s life, under the sign of involution, there is “wear” of cells, tissues and body systems (like parts of a machine) and a weakening of regulatory processes. At the same time, with age, nervous regulation is disturbed somewhat earlier, and then humoral. The weak side of this theory is that a person in the process of life not only wears out, but self-repairs and self-regulates.

The theory of waste of vital energy is close to the one described above. In accordance with the energy rule of M. Rubner, the human energy fund is predetermined genetically, and during life it is only spent. If this theory is fully followed, then we can assume that the lower the physical activity and the less energy consumption, the slower aging begins and the longer life is.

The colloid-chemical theory of aging postulates the proposition that cells and tissues have a colloidal structure, which is destroyed in the process of life, forming harmful chemicals. These toxic substances, poisoning the body, cause its aging. In order to slow down the involutional processes, it is necessary to remove the destroyed colloids from the body and create new ones. But how to do this, the authors of the theory do not indicate.

At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, the theory of autointoxication (self-poisoning), developed by the Nobel Prize laureate (1908) I.I. optimism ". Along with others and reasons that affect life expectancy (bad habits, unfavorable environmental factors, etc.), the author believed, in particular, that self-poisoning with intestinal poisons occurs due to the vital activity of colon microbes that cause the formation of toxic substances (phenol, indole, scotol), which lead to poisoning of the body and the onset of premature old age. With the aim of preventing old age, I.I. At the same time, the scientist made another extremely important conclusion: it is necessary to prolong life, not old age. In other words, he formulated the concept of active longevity, about that period of life when a person retains both physical and mental strength - when he is capable of creativity.

Some scientists adhere to the theory of somatic cell inferiority. The authors of this theory distinguish two groups of cells: a) reproductive - the most important, complete and active, which ensure the preservation of the species; b) somatic - they give their vital resources first, they are depleted and aging faster. This theory goes back to the position expressed by II Mechnikov (1903) on the development of disharmony in elderly people. The main reason for them is the contradiction between the long-lasting sexual instinct and the rather quickly disappearing ability to satisfy sexual feelings, between the thirst for life and the opportunity to live. These disharmonies form a state of pessimism in a person, which in turn intensifies these disharmonies. In this regard, II Mechnikov concludes that our desires are often incommensurate with our capabilities, and this shortens life!

Thus, there are a number of theories of aging, each of which, firstly, reflects the views of the authors on involutional changes, and secondly, considers these changes at certain levels of the organism. It can be assumed that this complex biological process has a polymorphic nature and it is not possible to explain its development by any one reason.

Naturally, the rate of aging, along with socio-economic and medical factors, determines the life expectancy of people. Life expectancy varies from country to country. So, in Holland, Sweden, USA and Japan the average life expectancy is about 80 years. In the Soviet Union (data for 1987), the average life expectancy was 72 for women and 64 years for men. Since 1990, life expectancy in Russia has been falling, and in 1996 it averaged 68 for women and 57 for men.

The maximum life expectancy, according to the calculations of V.V. Frolkis (1975), can reach 115-120 years. This makes the prospect of increasing active longevity and life expectancy by 40-50% reasonable. The English gerontologist Justin Glase in his book "Living 180 ... It's Possible" indicates that this requires: rational nutrition and proper breathing; movement and a healthy lifestyle; reduction of stress and motivation for a long life.

After 20-25 years (the end of the formation of the organism), the processes of involution begin, which affect all marks, tissues, organs, systems of the organism and their regulation. All age-related changes are reduced to three types: indicators and parameters that decrease with age; little changing and gradually increasing.

The first group of age-related changes includes the contractility of the myocardium and skeletal muscles, visual acuity, hearing and performance of nerve centers, the function of the digestive glands and internal secretion, the activity of enzymes and hormones. The second group of indicators is the level of sugar in the blood, acid-base balance, membrane potential, morphological composition of blood, etc. humoral substances, the level of cholesterol, lecithins and lipoproteins in the blood.

The most important physiological characteristic of young people is homeostasis (relative constancy of the internal environment of the body), for mature and elderly people - homeoresis (age-related changes in the basic parameters of the body). The most significant age-related changes occur in people aged 50-60; at this time, various diseases develop more often.

Recent studies have shown that the body's ability to adapt to normal environmental factors changes with age, which ultimately leads to the development of chronic stress reactions in the elderly. Analyzing changes in the body during aging and stress, V.M. Dielman (1976) found that many of them are identical. The author proposed the so-called elevation theory of aging (elevation, lat., - rise, shift up), based on the fact that the activity of the hypothalamic part of the brain, which controls the regulation of the internal environment of the body, does not decrease with age, but, on the contrary, increases. This is reflected in an increase in the thresholds for homeostatic inhibition, metabolic disorders and the development of chronic stress. On the basis of this theory, some practical measures are proposed aimed at improving the adaptive capabilities of older people (active rest, optimal physical activity, biologically active substances).

The increase in the thresholds of perception of various stimuli (hypothalamic threshold according to V.M.Dilman) is primarily due to a decrease in the reactivity of the body of the elderly. These age-related physiological characteristics lead to a change in homeostasis, the development of stress reactions, a deterioration in the functions of various organs and systems, and a decrease in mental and physical performance. Lowering the threshold of hypothalamus perception, L.Kh. Harkavi et al. (1990) established an improvement in body functions, an increase in the phagocytic activity of leukocytes, the level of sex hormones and performance in the elderly.

Physiological features of the body of people of mature and old age

The processes of maturation and aging are continuous, uneven and non-simultaneous. They affect not equally different tissues, organs and systems of the body.

Age-related physiological characteristics lead to a change in homeostasis, the development of stress reactions, a deterioration in the functions of various organs and systems, a decrease in mental and physical performance.

Compared to other tissues of the body, connective tissue “ages” first of all. At the same time, it loses its elasticity. Age-related changes in the muscular system and ligamentous apparatus are expressed in the deterioration of the elastic properties of muscles and ligaments, which, if the dosage of physical activity is incorrect, can lead to rupture of muscle fibers and ligaments; a decrease in the magnitude of the displayed force; slow transition of muscles from a state of relaxation to a stressed state and vice versa; a decrease in muscle volume (muscles become flabby).

As the body ages, the elasticity of the walls of the arteries built from connective tissue decreases. This leads to a decrease in the blood supply to organs, which negatively affects their performance. Especially serious consequences are caused by disturbances in the blood supply to the brain and heart. They are not only accompanied by a deterioration in the overall performance of the body, but can also cause serious illnesses. Due to lack of nutrition, the muscle cells of the heart gradually atrophy. This leads to a decrease in the volume of the heart and a change in its functional properties. Excitability, conductivity and contractility of the myocardium are reduced. To provide the required minute volume, the weakened heart of an elderly person must contract more often. If at a young age in people who are not involved in sports, the heart beats about 70 times in 1 minute, then in elderly people the heart rate at rest is accelerated to 80-90 beats.

The elasticity of blood vessels decreases, their membrane thickens, the lumen decreases, as a result of which blood pressure rises (on average, it is at rest 150/90 mm Hg). The pressure increased at rest increases even more during muscular activity, which makes it difficult for the heart to function. It is important to take this circumstance into account when engaging in physical exercises with middle-aged and elderly people. A sharp increase in blood pressure can cause disruption of the integrity of the arterial wall and, as a result, hemorrhage in the tissue.

Age-related changes in the respiratory system are characterized by a deterioration in the elasticity of the lung tissue, a weakening of the respiratory muscles, a limitation of the mobility of the chest, and a decrease in pulmonary ventilation. The vital capacity of the lungs as a result decreases. Pulmonary ventilation at rest also decreases slightly, but the oxygen demand is fully satisfied. When performing even light work, pulmonary ventilation in elderly people cannot increase to the proper extent. As a result, an oxygen debt is formed in the body, while breathing sharply increases.

A decrease in the functions of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems in old age, as well as a decrease in the oxygen capacity of the blood, leads to a sharp decrease in aerobic performance. The maximum oxygen consumption after 25-30 years gradually decreases and by the age of 70 it is 50% of the level of 20 years. Elderly people who regularly exercise can do long-term work. However, its power should not be large. As soon as the power of work, and, consequently, the oxygen demand increase, the body begins to experience insurmountable difficulties and is forced to stop working.

Anaerobic performance also declines with age. In old age, the tissues of the body do not tolerate a lack of oxygen and the accumulation of acidic products. The heart muscle is especially affected. Work that requires high anaerobic performance should be completely eliminated when exercising with the elderly.

Changes in the activity of the endocrine glands play an important role in reducing the working capacity of middle-aged and elderly people. By the age of 40-45, the functions of the gonads weaken, their hormone release decreases. This leads to a decrease in the intensity of metabolism in the tissues.

Muscle strength with the extinction of the function of the gonads decreases. The reduced amount of sex hormones causes disruption of the activity of other endocrine glands. This is accompanied by a temporary disruption of hormonal balance in the body. The period during which adaptation to new conditions of existence takes place is called climacteric. It is usually more pronounced in women. Exercise is especially necessary at this time. They facilitate the adaptation of the body to the altered ratios of different hormones and maintain regulatory functions at the required level.

The totality of the noted age-related changes of a morphofunctional nature is manifested in a deterioration in working capacity and individual physical qualities. Indicators of speed and accuracy of motional actions fall, coordination of movements becomes less perfect, their amplitude gradually decreases.

In old age, significant changes occur in the activity of the brain, most often this is due to a deterioration in its blood supply. Reactions to stimuli are slowed down, new temporary connections are formed with difficulty. All this should be taken into account when engaging in physical exercises with people of this age. The movements performed should be simple in coordination and, if possible, consist of elements that are already familiar to the practitioner.

In middle-aged and elderly people, vision and hearing deteriorate, touch and proprioceptive sensitivity become dull. In middle-aged and elderly people, the elasticity of the lens is reduced. In this regard, it cannot change its shape, and the eye loses the ability to see closely objects well. Later, the ability to see and distant objects is impaired. As a result, in people of this age, visual information about changes in the environment worsens.

A decrease in tissue elasticity in old age also causes hearing loss. With age, the elasticity of the main membrane also decreases, which leads to hearing loss. Elderly people are especially bad at picking up high-pitched sounds. Deterioration of the functions of the sense organs limits the information necessary for motor activity. This complicates movement control.

Deterioration in coordination of movements in elderly people is caused along with changes in the activity of the brain and sensory organs and age-related changes in skeletal muscles, ligaments and other peripheral links of the motor apparatus. The older a person is, the less strength his bones are. They become brittle, brittle. This is important to consider when engaging in physical exercise. Movements should not be too harsh. Landing points when jumping should not be hard. Students should be protected from possible falls. With age, the volume of skeletal muscles and the number of muscle fibers decrease, muscle tone, extensibility and muscle strength decrease. These changes are combined with a decrease in joint mobility. All this leads to a decrease in the amplitude, speed and strength of movements. Speed ​​also deteriorate with age.

The ability for power work remains somewhat longer. However, strength exercises for the elderly should be performed with caution, as this creates tension that adversely affects the activity of the heart.

Longer than other physical qualities, middle-aged and elderly people retain endurance. Endurance to work of moderate power with appropriate training can develop up to 42-45 years old and remain at the achieved level for several more years. There are cases of high sports results shown in long-distance running and cross-country skiing by people over 40 years old.

Physical culture and its influence on the human body

For the normal functioning of the human body and maintaining health, a certain dose of physical activity is required. Physical culture has two types of influence on the human body - general and special. The overall effect of physical culture is energy expenditure, which is directly proportional to the duration and intensity of muscular activity, which makes it possible to compensate for the deficit in energy expenditures. It is also important to increase the body's resistance to the action of unfavorable environmental factors. As a result of an increase in nonspecific immunity, resistance to colds also increases.

A special effect of physical culture is associated with an increase in the functional capabilities of the cardiovascular system. It consists in economizing cardiac activity and lower myocardial oxygen demand. In addition to a pronounced increase in the reserve capacity of the cardiovascular system, physical culture is also a powerful preventive measure against cardiovascular diseases.

Adequate physical activity can largely halt age-related changes in various body functions. At any age, with the help of physical education, you can increase aerobic capabilities and endurance levels - indicators of the biological age of the body and its vitality. Thus, the health-improving effect of physical culture is associated primarily with an increase in the aerobic capabilities of the body, the level of general endurance and physical performance. An increase in physical performance is accompanied by a preventive effect against risk factors for cardiovascular diseases: a decrease in body weight and fat mass, cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the blood, a decrease in low-density lipoproteins and an increase in high-density lipoproteins, a decrease in blood pressure and heart rate.

In addition, regular physical education can significantly slow down the development of age-related changes in physiological functions, as well as degenerative changes in various organs and systems. In this respect, the musculoskeletal system is no exception. Physical education has a positive effect on all parts of the locomotor system, preventing the development of degenerative changes associated with age and physical inactivity. Increases bone mineralization and calcium content in the body, which prevents the development of osteoporosis. The flow of lymph to the articular cartilage and intervertebral discs increases, which is the best way to prevent arthrosis and osteochondrosis.

Physiological features of adaptation of people of mature and old age to physical activity

Age-related changes occurring in the organs and systems of the body are especially clearly manifested during physical exertion. This fully applies to the shifts occurring in the central nervous system. So, I.P. Pavlov, analyzing the symptoms of age-related decrease in brain reactivity, pointed out that with age, there is a decrease in the ability to accurately coordinate the performance of several actions at the same time. On the other hand, regular physical exercises by people of mature and old age increase the functional capabilities of the body and correct the already developed unfavorable changes in organs and systems. In particular, during physical exercises, the work of the autonomic systems improves, the mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation of functions are supported, and the established stereotype of life is preserved. For persons who have stopped professional sports activities, the best way to prevent diseases and maintain functional activity is regular exercise.

It has been established that people of mature and old age, well physically prepared, successfully learn and memorize the exercises both during the story and during the demonstration. In the case of insufficiently trained persons, memorization is mainly based on display. Thus, the ability to learn and memorize physical exercises, and, consequently, the development of motor skills depends not so much on the age of the trainees, but on the level of their physical fitness. Observations show that in people aged 40-50 years, the process of forming new motor skills proceeds rather quickly, after 50 years it slows down. Therefore, in elderly people, the formation of motor skills should be combined: verbal instruction should be supported by a demonstration of the exercise being learned. This position reflects the general physiological laws of the formation of a motor skill on the basis of the interaction of the concrete-figurative (first) and abstract-conceptual (second) signal systems.

The role of the second signaling system is manifested at all stages of the formation and implementation of motor skills with the constant active influence of both speech reporting and internal speech associated with thinking through exercises. For the successful mastering of new motor skills by persons of mature and old age, a supply of various motor actions acquired earlier, including those not directly related to the exercises being learned, is of great importance. As a rule, people who are versatile physically prepared master new motor skills faster and better.

In people of mature and old age, great difficulties are caused by the implementation of various game techniques, complexly coordinated movements, which is associated with a weakening of attention and a deterioration in the automaticity of motor acts. It is significantly difficult to perform physical exercises if they are carried out at a fast pace. To successfully complete the subsequent movement, it is necessary to significantly slow down the previous one. Thus, the formation of new motor skills in persons of the age under consideration depends, first of all, on the stock of previously acquired skills, the activity of the second signal system (internal speech) and the nature of the central regulation of movements.

Central regulation of movements is largely individual, but its general physiological regularities in people of mature and old age are characterized by the following: weakening of cortical and reticular influences; a decrease in inhibition in the cerebral cortex, the functions of the extrapyramidal systems and the thalamus; deterioration of the lability of spinal cord motor neurons and recovery processes in the central nervous system; slowing down the conduction of excitation along the nerves and in the synapses; a decrease in the synthesis of mediators, etc. By the feedback mechanism, the functions of the nerve centers are influenced by the weakening of impulses from the proprioceptors.

At the same time, certain structural changes are noted in the muscles, which are expressed in a decrease in the number of myofibrils and fast muscle fibers, a decrease in muscle strength, etc.

Many characteristics of central movement regulation are determined by the level of oxygen supply to the nervous system. Due to vascular disorders, oxygen supply deteriorates with age, which is manifested by the development of degenerative changes in the neurons of the brain, spinal cord and in the pathways. Naturally, such structural disorders can cause significant changes in the functions of the nervous system and their regulatory influences on the motor apparatus.

Changes in physical qualities with age are quite individual. You can meet middle-aged and elderly people in whom the state of the neuromuscular system has clear signs of wilting, while other people of the same age have high functional indicators. For example, in some individuals, muscle strength decreases after 20-25 years, when the progressive biological development of the body ends; for others - after 40-45 years. First of all, with age, speed, flexibility and agility deteriorate; better retained - strength and endurance, especially aerobic. Significant adjustments in the age-related dynamics of motor qualities are introduced by physical culture and sports, which postpone the onset of involutional processes.

Speed ​​deteriorates with age in all its constituent parameters (latent period of sensorimotor reactions, speed of single movement and pace of movements). From 20 to 60 years, the latency period increases by 1.5-2 times. The greatest drop in the speed of movement is noted at the age from 50 to 60 years, and in the period of 60-70 years some stabilization occurs. The rate of movement most noticeably decreases at the age of 30 to 60 years, in the period of 60-70 years it changes little, and at an older age it slows down significantly. One gets the impression that at the age of 60-70 some new level of vital activity arises, which provides a certain, albeit somewhat reduced, speed of movements. In persons who regularly perform physical activity, the decrease in all indicators of speed is at a slower pace. For example, in trained persons aged 50-60 years, the decrease in speed is 20-40%, and in untrained persons - 25-60% of the initial values ​​obtained at the age of 18-20 years.

The strength of various muscle groups reaches maximum values ​​by the age of 18-20, remains at a high level until 40-45, and by the age of 60 it decreases by about 25%. The involution of strength as a physical quality can be assessed by its indicators in individual movements and by the restructuring of the topography of various muscle groups. By the age of 60, the strength of the muscles of the trunk decreases to a large extent, which is primarily due to the violation of the trophism of the neuromuscular apparatus and the development of destructive changes in it.

In persons who are not engaged in physical exercises, the greatest decrease in strength is noted at the age of 40 to 50 years, in those who regularly exercise - from 50 to 60 years. The benefits of trained people are most felt at the age of 50-60 and older. For example, in the streets involved in sports or physical labor, the strength of the hands with dynamometry even at the age of 75 is 40-45 kg, which corresponds to the average level of a 40-year-old person. A decrease in muscle strength is associated with a weakening of the functions of the sympathoadrenal system and gonads (the formation of androgens decreases). These age-related changes lead to a deterioration in the neurohumoral regulation of muscles and a decrease in their metabolic rate.

Speed-strength qualities also decrease with age, but the contribution of this or that quality (strength, speed) to the general motor reaction depends on the nature of the exercises. For example, with age, strength decreases with age, while throwing - speed. When performing most physical exercises, speed-strength qualities are interrelated and affect each other. Speed-strength training develops these qualities of a person to a greater extent and has little effect on the development of endurance. Conversely, endurance training causes an increase in endurance with little effect on the systems and mechanisms responsible for the manifestation of muscle strength. That is why people of mature and old age, when engaging in physical exercises, should use their various complexes, which make it possible to counteract involutionary changes in most organs and systems.

Endurance in comparison with other physical qualities persists for a longer time with age. It is believed that its decline begins after 55 years, and when working with moderate power (with aerobic energy supply), it often remains quite high at 70-75 years. This is confirmed by the well-known facts of participation of people of this age in long races, swims, hiking trips. When performing exercises of a high-speed, strength and speed-strength nature (with anaerobic energy supply), endurance decreases after 40-45 years. This is due to the fact that the development of endurance depends, first of all, on the functional usefulness of the circulatory system, respiration and the blood system, that is, on the oxygen transport system, which is not trained enough when performing the above exercises. Regular physical activity for endurance (running, skiing, swimming) noticeably postpones its decline, strength exercises (kettlebells, dumbbells, expander) have little effect on the age-related dynamics of endurance.

Flexibility is characterized by the ability to perform movements with maximum amplitude. Without special training, this quality begins to decline from the age of 15-20, which disrupts mobility and coordination in various forms of complex movements. In elderly people, as a rule, the flexibility of the body (especially of the spine) is significantly reduced. Training allows you to maintain this quality for many years. When trying to regain flexibility, the best results are observed in those who have good physical fitness.

The main manifestation of dexterity is the accuracy of motor orientation in space. This quality also declines quite early (from 18-20 years old); special training slows down the decline in dexterity, and it remains at a high level for many years.

The influence of physical activity on the functional state, performance and health preservation

Exercise is a powerful means of maintaining a high level of all functional parameters of the body.

Movement is the most physiological attribute of life. Muscular activity causes tension in all functional systems, is accompanied by hypoxia, which trains regulatory mechanisms, improves recovery processes, improves adaptation to adverse environmental conditions.

The influence of muscle activity is so great that under its prolonged influence the activity of the genetic apparatus and protein biosynthesis change, aging slows down and many diseases are prevented; the body becomes less susceptible to harmful factors. These provisions are well known, although they are difficult to implement.

What is the physiological role of exercise for people of mature and old age? Under the influence of moderate regular physical activity, the mechanisms of regulation of various organs and systems are improved, and the functions of the body are more economical. The latter is manifested in a decrease in the heart rate and blood pressure level, an increase in myocardial diastole, an increase in the oxygen utilization rate and a decrease in the oxygen cost of work. The use of physical exercises improves the blood supply to various tissues, especially skeletal muscles, which reduces hypoxic phenomena. The development of positive emotions and an increase in the stability of the hypothalamic-pituitary system provide an anti-stress effect. For a longer time, the decline in physical qualities slows down and mental and physical performance is preserved. All this contributes to the development of active longevity, prevention of diseases, aging and prolongation of human life.

The adaptation of autonomic systems in people of mature and old age has quite pronounced features. So, the development of myogenic leukocytosis, erythrocytosis, thrombocytosis is less pronounced and the lymphocytic reaction is especially weak. In persons of this age, the destruction of blood corpuscles is increased, and their restoration is delayed for a longer period.

In people who regularly perform physical activity, a more economical activity of the cardiovascular system is noted, and its main functional constants remain at an optimal level for a long time. In particular, they have more stable heart rate indicators, there is no significant increase in blood pressure, the contractile force of the myocardium, its metabolism, excitability and conductivity are preserved. In these individuals, there is no significant decrease in stroke and minute volumes of blood flow, its speed and volume of circulating blood. In people who do not exercise regularly, even minor loads cause severe tachycardia, increased blood pressure, decreased stroke volume and total blood flow, and sometimes cardiovascular failure may develop. At the same time, the maximum heart rate achieved during work in people of mature and old age is noticeably reduced.

The indicators of the functions of external respiration with regular exercise remain quite high in the elderly. This is manifested by the preservation of the proper depth of breathing and pulmonary ventilation, the vital capacity of the lungs, the maximum breathing volume and maximum ventilation of the lungs. In people who do not exercise regularly, physical activity is accompanied by severe shortness of breath, insufficient ventilation of the lungs and a decrease in blood oxygenation.

The functions of the digestive and excretory systems of people leading an active lifestyle remain fairly stable. In particular, they retain the secretory and motor functions of the gastrointestinal tract for a long time, filtration and reabsorption in the kidneys are quite stable, there are no pronounced edemas, which are most often the result of cardiovascular or renal failure. Low motor activity is accompanied by a deterioration in the functions of the digestive system and excretion.

In old age, all types of metabolism (protein, carbohydrate, fat and energy) are reduced. The main manifestation of this is the excessive content of cholesterol, lipoproteins and lactic acid in the blood (even with minor loads). Regular moderate physical activity increases the metabolic rate and significantly reduces cholesterol and lipoprotein levels, reducing the possibility of developing atherosclerosis. At the same time, physical activity, even of moderate intensity, but carried out occasionally, is accompanied by an excessive accumulation of lactic acid and a decrease in blood glucose levels, a shift in pH towards acidosis, an increase in under-oxidized products in the blood and urine (creatinine, urea, uric acid, etc.). ).

Even moderate work in people over 40 is energetically provided, mainly due to anaerobic glycolysis, which is due to a deterioration in the satisfaction of oxygen demand.

The functions of the body's regulatory systems (endocrine glands and central nervous system) also decrease with age. After 40-45 years, the functions of the pituitary gland, adrenal glands and pancreas deteriorate, after 50 years - the functions of the thyroid and gonads. Moderate regular exercise delays the decline in the function of these glands; significant loads, as well as the performance of exercises by persons not adapted to them, inhibit the activity of the endocrine glands.

The parameters of the central nervous system and higher nervous activity are the most stable and less susceptible to age-related involutional processes. Recreational physical culture activates the functions of the central nervous system and VND, hard physical work oppresses them. Naturally, age-related changes in the functions of the central nervous system and the endocrine system worsen the nervous and humoral regulation of all the autonomic systems of the body.

Physical exercises are a good way to preserve all parameters of the functional state of the organism of people of mature and old age. In the physiology of labor and sports, the functional state of a person is understood as the totality of the available characteristics of those functions and qualities that determine the success of his life.

The main functional states associated with motor activity are considered to be fatigue, chronic fatigue, overwork (overtraining), psychoemotional tension, monotony, hypokinesia and hypodynamia. All functional states are divided into three types: normal (fatigue), borderline (chronic fatigue) and pathological (overwork).

It is quite obvious that in old age fatigue develops faster, and it turns into overwork more easily. Elderly people are more susceptible to psycho-emotional experiences, their whole life and activities are more monotonous, they are more often accompanied by physical inactivity and hypokinesia. In older people, the last two factors acquire a special role, which lead to a decrease in the functions of organs and systems and a decrease in energy consumption. These physiological changes are associated with more intimate disorders in the body associated with a decrease in oxygen consumption and the coefficient of its use, a decrease in tissue respiration, general gas exchange and energy exchange. Ultimately, performance drops significantly, especially in men. Regular use of physical exercise prevents or significantly reduces these disorders.

From a physiological point of view, changes in the functional state and decreased performance in elderly people are due to many factors. First of all, they have a slowdown in the blood flow rate, a decrease in the volume of circulating blood and its oxygenation, the development of hypoxia of organs and tissues. Small stores of glycogen in the muscles and liver lead to a drop in blood glucose levels, a decrease in oxidative processes and energy metabolism. There is also a slowdown in recovery reactions and the development of sclerotic changes in the vessels and tissues of the body. As a result, direct indicators of working capacity (the quantity and quality of work performed) and its indirect criteria (clinical and physiological, biochemical and psychophysiological) decrease, which indicate an increase in the physiological cost of the work performed.

The importance of physical exercise and muscle activity should be considered, first of all, in the light of the theory of motor-visceral reflexes, formulated by R. M. Mogendovich in 1947. According to this theory, motor skills act as a leading system that determines the level of activity of all major systems of the body. Based on this theory, it seems possible to assess the interaction of the motor and autonomic systems, to prevent adverse functional changes, diseases and premature aging.

All authors of numerous methods and means of prolonging active longevity and preventing aging put physical training in the first place. So, the American physiologist A. Tunney out of 10 considered for these purposes means (nutrition, smoking, productive work, optimism, love and attention to people, training the mind, etc.) again considers the use of optimal physical activity to be the leading one. From a physiological and pedagogical point of view, the optimal load is its smallest volume, which allows you to achieve the highest possible useful result.

The most accessible and reliable criteria for assessing the optimality of health-improving loads are heart rate and% VO2 max (oxygen consumption level). Currently, there are ambiguous opinions on the value of these constants, but it is fundamentally important that all authors recommend taking into account the age, fitness level and state of health of a person. If we summarize the data of the majority of specialists in this area, we can recommend the average values ​​of the heart rate for people of different ages when doing health-improving physical culture. So, for persons under the age of 20, loads are recommended at a heart rate of no more than 140 beats per minute, for 30-year-olds - up to 130, 40-year-olds - up to 125, 50-year-olds - up to 120, and 60-year-olds and older - up to 100 -110 beats per minute. When performing special physical exercises, walking and running for health, oxygen consumption in the elderly should be 50-60% of the BMD, in younger people this value can reach 60-75%.

The role and importance of physical culture in maintaining health, preventing premature aging and prolonging active longevity are determined by a number of physiological changes in individuals who regularly perform the recommended physical activity. In such people, oxygenation of the blood, organs and tissues improves, regional hypoxia is prevented, the level of metabolism increases and the excretion of end products of metabolism from the body. In these individuals, the biosynthesis of protein, enzymes and hormones remains at a high level, which significantly slows down the aging process of the body. Prevention of coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis and obesity is due to a decrease in cholesterol and lipoprotein levels with sufficient muscle exertion. The latter, increasing the functional activity of muscles ("muscle pump" or "peripheral heart", according to NI Arinchin), improve the activity of the cardiovascular system. Regulatory and adaptive mechanisms, the activity of the immune system are preserved and improved, and ultimately the body's resistance to the effects of adverse environmental factors increases, the possibility of a number of diseases decreases, and mental and physical performance is preserved.

Conclusion

1. Mature and old age are naturally coming stages of a person's individual development. The processes of maturation and aging are continuous, uneven and non-simultaneous. They affect not equally different tissues, organs and systems of the body.

1. There are a number of theories about aging at the cellular, molecular and organismal levels. Common in most of these theories is the recognition of the role of age-related mutations in the genetic apparatus of the cell. It can be assumed that this complex biological process has a polymorphic nature and it is not possible to explain its development by any one reason.
2. In old and older age, irreversible changes occur in the systems and organs of the human body, called aging. The intensity of aging depends on the lifestyle, dietary habits, and motor regime. The less the physical activity of a person, the faster, other things being equal, the changes occur in his body, characteristic of the period of old age. And, conversely, with a sufficiently active lifestyle, the body's performance can be maintained at a high level until old age.
3. Adequate physical activity can largely halt age-related changes in various body functions. The increase in physical performance is accompanied by a preventive effect against risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. In addition, regular physical education can significantly slow down the development of age-related changes in physiological functions, as well as degenerative changes in various organs and systems.
4. Exercise and the associated changes in functions and emotional reactions have a beneficial effect on the body of people of mature and old age. The most vividly positive influence is manifested when the nature, volume, rhythm, intensity and other qualities of the exercises are established taking into account the fitness level, personal characteristics and functional state of the trainees. At the same time, physical activity should ensure the correction of age-related disorders and the prevention of pathological changes in the body.

Bibliography

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2. Kots Ya.M. Sports physiology. Textbook for institutes of physical culture / Ya.M. Kots. - M .: Physical culture and sport, 1986 .-- 128 p.
3. Myshkina, A.K. Elderly age. Treatment and prevention of diseases / A.K. Myshkin. - M .: "Scientific book", 2006. - 230 p.
4. Seluyanov V.N. Technology of health-improving physical culture / Seluyanov V.N. - M .: TVT Division, 2009 .-- 192 p.
5. A.S. Solodkov Human physiology. General. Sports. Age: Textbook / A.S. Solodkov, E.B. Sologub. - M .: Olympia Press, 2005 .-- 528 p.
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Specialization "Human and Animal Physiology"

Special course "Age physiology" 4 course

Physiological features of the body of people of mature and old age

As part of the developmental physiology course, we examined the physiological characteristics of the stages of a child's development from infancy to senior school age. At these stages, we traced the patterns of ontogenetic development

Integrity and phasing (staging) of ontogenesis is an objective division of ontogenesis into stages that differ in the tasks solved by the body and the properties of physiological systems (age periodization).

Continuity and unevenness of growth and development - the growth and development of the human body proceeds continuously with alternating periods of accelerated growth or intensive development.

Heterochronism of growth and development - the maturation of individual functional systems of the body at different times, i.e., in the process of ontogenesis, first of all, those systems that are necessary for solving the problems of the next stage of the development of the body (systemogenesis) mature.

Heterosensitivity - different sensitivity (susceptibility) of developing systems of the body to external influences at certain stages of ontogenesis.

Increasing heterogeneity is the complication of the organization of all body systems due to the specialization of elements, that is, an increase in the heterogeneity of cells and an increase in the specificity of their functioning.

Differentiation - as the peripheral structures of the body mature, the control of functions is transferred from the center to the periphery and the local level. With age, the role and contribution of local (tissue and cellular) processes in the regulation of the body's functioning increases.

Economization of functions - a decrease in the functional response of a biological system to external influences. With age, a person's level of functional activity of the body decreases in conditions of rest, due to which the volume of its reserve capabilities increases with the stress of functions.

The biological reliability of an organism is a property of an organism characterized by an optimal supply of functional capabilities capable of providing stability and viability under significant external influences.

Adaptability is the consistency of age-related characteristics of the structure and functioning of the organism with the parameters of the environment. In adequate conditions, even an immature organism successfully copes with the task of adaptation (adaptation) to external conditions.

An increase in the rigidity (stability) of homeostatic constants in ontogenesis - under the influence of external factors, homeostasis indicators change to a lesser extent in adults than in children. Therefore, with any impact on the body, its viability is higher in adults than at an early age. old age ontogenetic organism

Topic of this lecture Physiological characteristics of the body of people of mature and old age

Questions to consider

1 aging

2. Life expectancy

4. Age features of the musculoskeletal, autonomic and sensory systems.

The United Nations has determined the age after which a person is considered elderly - 60 years. And the proportion of people living in the country at the age of 65 was established as an indicator of population aging. It should be noted that, according to scientists, it is very difficult to study the issue of aging in relation to a fixed age. Thus, a 60-year-old person in 1900 and a 60-year-old person in 2012 are people with completely different levels of health, physical condition and potential. According to the WHO (World Health Organization) classification, old age begins at 65 years old, this is due to the fact that in most developed countries the retirement age is established precisely during this period, and not at 60 years old, as in our country.

1. Aging

Gerontology is a branch of biology and medicine that studies the patterns of aging of living things, including humans.

(Greek - "hero" - old man + "logos" = teaching).

The aging mechanism of the body is complex. For many centuries, scientists have been trying to unravel it, many theories have been proposed (over 200), but none of them reveals the essence of this process.

The first attempts to scientifically explain aging began at the end of the 19th century. According to Weismann's theory, “not aging organisms are not only not useful, they are harmful because they take the place of the young,” which should have led evolution to the emergence of aging. The great Russian scientist I.I.Mechnikov (1908) put the aging of the body in direct dependence on the microflora of the large intestine, in which putrefactive fermentation develops, as a result of which poisonous products (phenol, indole, etc.) cause self-poisoning of the body. Academician A. A. Bogomolets (1940) considered changes in the connective tissue in the body as one of the causes of aging. IP Pavlov considered the cause of old age to be a violation of the function of the whole organism, the work of which is regulated by the central nervous system. The scientist came to the conclusion that the central nervous system plays an initial and leading role in the aging process.

VV Frolkis (1985) - created the adaptive-regulatory theory of aging. In the course of aging, the process of vitaukta (vita - life, auctum - to increase) occurs in parallel, stabilizing the vital activity of the organism, increasing its adaptive capabilities.

Old age is a naturally occurring final period of age development (the final period of ontogenesis).

Aging is a biological destructive process that inevitably develops with age, leading to a limitation of the body's adaptive capabilities.

The development of aging is characterized by:

heterochronism - the difference in the timing of the onset of aging of individual organs and tissues (the thymus atrophies at the age of 13-15 years, the gonads - at 48-52 years in women);

heterotopicity - different severity of aging processes for different organs and systems.

Aging is a multi-causal process caused by many factors, the action of which is repeated and accumulated throughout life. Among them are stress, illness, accumulation of free radicals, exposure to xenobiotics (foreign substances), temperature damage, insufficient excretion of protein breakdown products, hypoxia, and others. Aging is a multifocal process, it occurs in different cell structures: in the nucleus, membranes; in different types of cells: nerve, secretory, immune, renal and others.

According to the theory of V.V. Frolkis, the rate of age-related changes is determined by the ratio of aging processes and vitaukt.

Currently, there are many theories of aging, but two are of leading importance:

Aging is a genetically programmed process, the result of the natural development of a program embedded in the genetic apparatus. In this case, the action of environmental and internal factors can affect the rate of aging, but to an insignificant extent.

Aging is the result of the destruction of the organism as a result of the inevitable damaging effect of shifts that occur in the course of life itself, i.e., a probabilistic process.

For probabilistic theories of aging, a common feature will be the appearance and accumulation of "errors" in the vital activity of cells or the weakening of their functions (these are some of them):

free radical theory - aging occurs due to damage caused by free radicals;

the theory of lipofuscin accumulation - (senile pigment - a product of protein and fat oxidation), aging is the accumulation of harmful (ballast) substances as a by-product of metabolism;

the theory of wear and tear of the body - assumes that aging is the result of ordinary wear and tear, like any physical body from a long existence;

somatic mutation theory - aging is the result of somatic mutations due to external and internal factors.

Aging - in biology, the process of gradual disruption and loss of important functions of the body or its parts, in particular the ability to reproduce and regenerate. As a result of aging, the body becomes less adapted to environmental conditions, decreases and loses its ability to fight predators and resist disease and injury.

There is natural (physiological), premature (accelerated) and delayed (retarded) aging.

Natural aging is characterized by a certain rate and sequence of age-related changes corresponding to the capabilities of a particular person.

With premature aging, these changes occur earlier and are more pronounced than in healthy people of the corresponding age. Premature aging - progeria can develop in children (from the first months of life) - death occurs at about 13 years old with all the signs of old age.

Aging is accelerated by a sedentary lifestyle, prolonged or repeated stressful situations, poor nutrition, chronic diseases, bad habits, hereditary predisposition.

The most common signs of accelerated aging are fatigue, early graying, decreased ability to work, early loss of memory, reproductive capacity.

And, finally, the dream of most people is delayed aging, in which age-related changes occur much later than in the general population. This type of aging leads to longevity, increased life expectancy. Until the elixir of eternal youth is invented, modern doctors recommend, if possible, to lead a healthy lifestyle. Analysis of the chemical composition of food for long-livers (Abkhazians, etc.) indicates a high content of components with an antioxidant effect, low protein content, and tryptophan deficiency. Their diet is characterized by a pronounced dairy-plant orientation, low consumption of fats, meat, fish, i.e. sufficiently low calorie intake, as well as reduced consumption of table salt. At the time of the third age, the role of fluid increases dramatically, since the body of older people is more vulnerable and worse than in youth it can cope with dehydration.

Currently, biological and medical science has established that aging decreases the ability to maintain the constancy of the internal environment in the body - homeostasis. In old age, damage to various structures occurs in the body: collagen, cell membranes, DNA and other molecules, cells and tissues. Aging occurs according to a genetic program that is different for a species, and different external causes only accelerate it.

2. Life expectancy

The biological species life expectancy of a person is 95 + - 5 years (cats - 18 years, hamsters - 3-4 years, dogs - 15 years).

Biological (anatomical and physiological) age - characterizes the biological state of the body (its viability, efficiency). The biological age may not correspond to the calendar age (ahead or behind it). The more the calendar age is ahead of the biological one, the slower the rate of its aging, the longer its life span should be. As tests of aging to determine biological age, it is proposed, for example, a decrease in the intensity of blast transformation of peripheral blood lymphocytes, vital capacity of the lungs, intellectual abilities (assessed by special scales), accommodation of the lens and the ability to static balancing (the ability of a person to stand on one leg with closed eyes) ...

People have always wanted to live forever. But for some earlier, for some later, the aging mechanism turns on and, as is commonly believed, is not the best time in life.

There are many scientific and pseudoscientific teachings about the extension of human life. They proceed from the fact that some representatives of the species Homo sapiens live up to 130-140 years under certain conditions, maintaining clarity of thoughts and relative working capacity. According to a number of enthusiasts, a person, if he was not susceptible to some diseases and vices, could live up to 200 years or more. It must be admitted that, as attractive as these concepts are, they are not based on modern scientific knowledge.

For mammals, which include humans, the following pattern is characteristic: the average life expectancy is about 5 times longer than the age of puberty. Apparently, this ratio was established in the process of natural selection as the most adequate to the tasks of population reproduction. The same pattern is characteristic of a person. At the same time, a person lives significantly (3-4 times) longer than animals with approximately the same body size - a pig, sheep, goat, chimpanzee, etc. Meanwhile, the biologically predetermined life span is closely related to the size of the animal: small mammals with a more intensive metabolism live much shorter lives (but at the same time live about the same "physiological time"). Exceptions to this rule are some species with relatively larger brains. So, a squirrel, which has the same dimensions as a rat, lives several times longer, while its brain is 1.5-2 times larger than that of a rat. Some arboreal felines also have relatively longer lives.

The human brain is outstanding in size in the animal kingdom, far exceeding the relative mass and complexity of organization of the brain of any other mammal. Perhaps, it is in the features of the structure and function of the brain that the amazing longevity of a person lies. However, it should be noted that the rate of development and morphofunctional maturation in humans is much lower than in mammals of the same size. Ungulates, carnivores and primates, similar in size to humans, reach sexual maturity 2-4 years after birth, while humans need 13-17 years. From this it follows that the natural limit of human life expectancy is approximately 16 x 5 = 90 years. Anyone who lives longer than this period is rightfully considered a long-liver.

Apparently, the rate of development and the rate of aging are closely related. The slower pace of development allows a person to gain huge personal and social experience, fill the brain with a colossal amount of information and develop socially adequate forms of interaction between representatives of different generations. Even in complex groups of animals (for example, primates) there is nothing like this. A person's childhood is greatly extended and the most active phase of life is proportionally lengthened. The biological payment for this is long aging, but the process of morphofunctional withering is to some extent compensated for by the social role that the wisdom of old age plays in a developed society.

It should be emphasized that all the above reasoning makes sense only at the population level and does not in any way relate to the individual characteristics of the rates of biological maturation. Special studies have not found significant correlations between the rate of puberty and life span in individuals. Residents of southern countries usually reach puberty 1-2 years earlier than northerners, but this does not mean that they live 5-10 years less. On an individual basis, life expectancy is influenced by such a number of various factors that such direct interpretations of general biological laws are unacceptable.

In 2010, according to the UN, Ukraine, Russia and Belarus were among the nine states where life expectancy fell below the 1970s. Life expectancy has increased the most since 1970 in the Arab states, by more than 18 years. In some developing countries, such as Chile and Malaysia, death rates are 60% lower than they were 30 years ago. In only 9 countries around the world, life expectancy has fallen below that of the 1970s. Six of them are in Africa, where AIDS is rampant. Three more - Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Drunkenness and wild capitalism are raging here. Perhaps the geopolitical catastrophe of the 90s affected the mortality rate: the East Slavic peoples are experiencing the loss of their common statehood with great difficulty. This is confirmed by the fact that in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, the reduction in life expectancy affected, first of all, men. There is a debate about the reasons for this phenomenon. There is an increase in alcoholism and stress associated with the transition to a market economy and high inflation, unemployment and uncertainty about the future. For example, one study found that between 1990 and 2004, 21% of the 25,000 men who died in Siberia had an almost lethal concentration of ethanol in their blood as the cause of death. However, alcoholism, like drug addiction, always have their own socio-economic reasons.

Life expectancy in Belarus increases by 0.3 years annually (September 23, 2012, Minsk) According to the 2012 European Statistical Review, the prospective age (life expectancy after 65 years) for Belarusian men in 2010 was 11.7 years (76, 7 years), women - 16.7 (81.7) years. In the Republic of Belarus, at the beginning of 2011 in the structure of the population aged 65 and over, women accounted for 69%. For a modern person, after retirement, the reality of living on average another 15-20 years has become quite obvious. More and more people continue to work after retirement.

The maximum life expectancy in humans reaches 100-110 years, but in reality only a few people experience this level.

Since the middle of the 20th century, six diseases have been the leading cause of death for 80-85% of people aged 40 and over. These are heart disease, cancer, cerebral hemorrhage, pneumonia, influenza and general atherosclerosis. It seems that as a result of the prevention of these diseases in humans, they will manifest themselves mainly at the age of 60-90, which will increase the average life expectancy to 85 years.

The rate of normal aging can be genetically controlled, this is evident, for example, from the coincidence of the aging rate in identical twins, examples of longevity of parents and children. The mother's body also influences life expectancy and the rate of aging. Thus, a person born to a mother in her early reproductive period lives longer than children born to her at the end of her reproductive function. In women, the influence of age on the state of vital functions, the rate of aging is less pronounced than in men. To a certain extent, this is due to the lower prevalence of harmful habits among women (smoking, more moderate alcohol consumption compared to men). However, in the animal kingdom, there is a greater longevity of females. One of the explanations for the longer life expectancy in women is that in the somatic cells of the female body there are two X chromosomes (in men - X and Y chromosomes), which increases the reliability of the genetic apparatus of the cells in women, creates a greater vitality of her body against unfavorable environmental factors.

3. Adaptive reactions and reactivity of the body.

4.features of the musculoskeletal, autonomic and sensory systems

5. Age features of regulatory systems

During the period of development of the organism from birth to adulthood, the capabilities of functional systems increase and reach peak values ​​at 20-25 years.

People between the ages of 20 and 55-60 are referred to adulthood. During this period, all functions of the body are fully formed, the functional activity of organs and systems is approximately at the same level.

A mature person has highly organized mechanisms of neurohumoral regulation.

Mature age (first period) - from 20 to 35 years for women and from 21 to 35 years for men. The heyday of all body functions and the relative stabilization of morphological and metabolic processes. The period from 25 to 35 years is characterized by the most stable state of the capabilities of various functions of the body.

Mature age (second period) - from 35 to 55 years for women and from 35 to 60 years for men. After 35 years, there is a steady decline in the body's capabilities, and by the age of 60-65, such physiological qualities as working capacity, maximum blood circulation and respiration capabilities decrease to 70 and even up to 50% of those values ​​that the same person had at 25-35 years old, even if he remained healthy all the time.

During this period, there is a significant neuroendocrine restructuring of a number of body systems. Mental processes and metabolism are characterized by significant lability. The severity of various indicators of morphological and functional development is greatly influenced by the constitutional characteristics of the organism. To a large extent, the external manifestations of age depend on them, and its morphofunctional signs receive their final completeness. This determines the discrepancy in the timing of biological and chronological age, which is often observed in life. At the border of mature and old age, the climacteric period is distinguished, characterized by violent shifts in neurohumoral regulation. It is especially active in women.

Elderly age - from 55-60 to 75 years for women and men. At this age, diseases of the cardiovascular system are especially common - hypertension, atherosclerosis, etc.

Body mass

In men, after 35 years of age, there is an increase of 0.2-0.8 kg of fat annually, up to about 60 years. This process is especially pronounced in persons leading a sedentary lifestyle and having enhanced nutrition. After 60 years, total body weight is reduced despite the increase in body fat.

A similar direction of changes in body weight is typical for women. This is due to the fact that lean body mass decreases linearly after age 20, even if the person maintains a constant weight or gains weight. This is proved by a decrease with age in the basal metabolic rate, potassium content in lean body mass, as well as a decrease in the volume of intracellular water (the volume of extracellular fluid does not change).

In parallel, there is a decrease in the total synthesis of proteins in the body, in particular, in skeletal muscles. However, the reverse morphological development of the organism, starting from the 3rd decade of life, does not equally affect the organs. Atrophy of the striated muscles, liver, kidneys and lymphoid system occurs earlier with age and is more pronounced than in the brain and heart.

The decrease in body weight in an aging person is also influenced by the incipient demineralization and porosity of bones. So, in people over 60 years old, bones can reduce weight from 30 to 50% (this is also added by the loss of water, even with normally calcified bones).

Changes in cell function during aging. With aging, the intensity of DNA replication decreases, fragmentation of its molecules occurs, the ability of DNA to repair decreases, the amount of newly synthesized RNA decreases, and the content of "inactive" chromatin in the nucleus increases. With aging, the functions of regulatory genes are disrupted and, as a consequence, the sequence of work of structural genes in the operon. As a result, there are changes in the structure of synthesized proteins, making them defective.

The number of lysosomes and cytoplasmic proteins in the cell decreases. A decrease in biosynthetic activity, plastic processes in the cell reflect changes in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. So, in the endoplasmic reticulum, the number of ribosomes on its membranes decreases, the cisterns expand. In the Golgi complex, the area of ​​the membranes decreases, their destruction is observed. Cell aging reduces the intensity of oxidative processes and, consequently, their energy potential. This is due to a decrease in the number of mitochondria in cells, a decrease in biosynthetic activity in them, and a violation of their membranes. As a result, the content of ATP, creatine phosphate and glycogen in cells decreases, but aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis is activated, providing the energy needs of cells in an aging body. With aging, an increase in the concentration of cholesterol in the blood serum increases its content in the plasma membrane, which increases its microviscosity. This, in turn, lowers the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. During aging, the concentration of most types of membrane receptors decreases, which reduces the binding of hormones and other biologically active substances by the cell. An increase in the content of cholesterol and phospholipids in cell membranes enhances lipid peroxidation. These changes at the membrane level reduce the functional activity of cells. For example, the accumulation of cholesterol in the plasma membrane of lymphocytes lowers their immune function. In cells capable of division, due to the same circumstances, growth factors stimulate cell proliferation less pronouncedly. The intensity of micropinocytosis decreases in the membranes of many cells. In aging cells of excitable tissues, the duration of the action potential and absolute refractoriness increases, while functional lability decreases, the amount of sodium inside the cells increases, and the amount of potassium decreases.

Blood functions during aging. With age, the number of nucleated cells in the bone marrow decreases and the volume occupied by fat cells increases. So, in people under the age of 65, about half of the bone marrow is occupied by adipose tissue, and later 2/3 of it is replaced by fat. It is likely that this loss of hematopoietic cells aggravates osteoporosis.

With aging, quantitative changes in blood parameters are most pronounced. So, if in 20-year-old men the average content of erythrocytes in the blood is 5.3 million / μl, then in 60-year-olds it is less - 5.1 million / μl; the hemoglobin content in men and women under 60 years old is 156 and 135 g / l, respectively, and in 96 and 106-year-olds - 124 g / l.

A decrease in the oxygen capacity of the blood is put in a causal relationship with an age-related decrease in basal metabolism, with a deficiency of iron, folic acid and vitamin B12 that is often found in the elderly. Thus, almost 30% of elderly people have a reduced vitamin B12 content in their blood serum. This is due to a decrease in its absorption due to atrophic gastritis, detected in 81% of persons over 60 years of age.

With age, the average volume of red blood cells increases. For example, in 20-year-old men it is 89 μm3, in 60-year-old men it is 93 μm3. The reasons causing an increase in the average volume of erythrocytes in the elderly include increased peroxidation in cell membranes, smoking and alcohol consumption, which affect the cytoskeleton of erythrocytes. Indeed, in smokers, the average erythrocyte volume is 1.5 μm3 higher than

for non-smokers. Moderate amounts of alcohol have the same effect.

Plasma iron exchange per day is slightly higher in persons from 61 to 80 years old than in 19-50 years old, respectively 125 ± 47 μmol / L of blood and 112 ± 27 μmol / L.

At the same time, in older people, compared with young people, the use of iron by non-erythroid tissue is increased.

In elderly people, pronounced shifts in the structure and regulatory mechanisms of hemostasis are manifested. After 40 years, there is a shift in the balance of hemostasis towards an increase in the procoagulant activity of the blood and an increase in the intensity of intravascular thrombus formation. This is evidenced by an increase in the concentration of decomposition products of fibrin, fibrinogen, the activity of factor XIII, an increase in plasma tolerance to heparin. In response to this rearrangement, the anticoagulant link, fibrinolysis, is activated in the procoagulant hemostasis system. However, the increase in the fibrinolytic activity of the blood lags behind the increase in its procoagulant activity. As a result, the coagulant properties of blood increase with aging. This is also facilitated by a more pronounced increase in the activity of the procoagulant link in the elderly compared with the young in response to the activation of the sympathoadrenal system under stress (the action of catecholamines) against the background of little changing fibrinolytic activity. On the other hand, with age, the production of plasminogen activators gradually decreases in the endothelium of the arteries, the production of prostaglandins decreases, which reduces the antiaggregatory activity of the vascular wall and creates a predisposition to intravascular thrombus formation. Hypercholesterolemia developing in the elderly, an increase in thromboglobulin concentration also increase the sensitivity of platelets to aggregates (substances that stimulate platelet aggregation). The foregoing makes clear the sharp increase with age in the risk of thrombosis and embolism.

The functions of the circulatory system. After 25 years, the maximum oxygen consumption by the body constantly decreases and by the age of 55 it is already almost 27% lower than the values ​​noted in 20-year-olds. At the same time, physically active people maintain a relatively high maximum oxygen consumption in all age groups. It follows that the level of maximum oxygen consumption reflects the level of physical activity more than the chronology of age. Thus, a gradual decrease in the maximum oxygen consumption after 25 years in physically active men is about 0.4 ml of O2 kg-min-1 for each year of life. For men leading a sedentary lifestyle, the rate of its decline is twice as fast. This decrease in the aerobic capacity of the body with aging is explained in changes in the function of the cardiovascular system, in particular, in the decrease with age in the maximum heart rate in men and women. This relationship can be expressed as follows. The maximum number of heartbeats = 220 - age (number of years).

As a consequence of the decrease in the maximum number of heartbeats, the minute volume and the cardiac index also decrease with age. The value of the latter decreases by 20-30% from 30 to 80 years. The deposition of fat in the coronary arteries impairs the supply of blood to the heart muscle. Myocardial hypoxia leads to its infiltration with collagen, which reduces the contractile activity of the heart, limits its work. In this regard, there is a decrease in the stroke volume of blood, the contractility index, systolic pressure in the left ventricle, the maximum speed of shortening of myocardial fibers. With age, the ability to supply blood to tissues also decreases. So, in the internal organs, skeletal muscles, the density of capillaries decreases, the diffusion radius increases, the basal layer of the capillary walls expands, and the area of ​​the total arterial section decreases.

During aging, atherosclerotic changes occur in the blood vessels that can reduce blood flow to organs. In turn, this turns out to be the cause of many symptoms, such as dementia, mental disorders, changes in kidney function. Loss of elasticity of the vascular wall and an increase in resistance to blood flow in small arteries increases the total peripheral vascular resistance. This leads to a natural increase in systemic blood pressure. So, by the age of 60, systolic blood pressure rises to 140 mm Hg, and diastolic - up to 90 mm Hg. In persons over 60 years of age (including long-livers), the blood pressure level does not exceed, on average, 150/90 mm Hg. An increase in blood pressure values ​​is hindered by both an increase in the volume of the aorta and a decrease in cardiac output. The control of blood pressure using the baroreceptor mechanism of the aorta and carotid sinus is impaired with age, which can cause severe hypotension in the elderly when moving to an upright position. Hypotension, in turn, can cause cerebral ischemia.

Hence, numerous falls in the elderly, caused by loss of balance and fainting when standing up quickly.

With age, phlebosclerosis develops in the veins, expressed in the disintegration of elastic fibers and their replacement with collagen fibers, degeneration of the endothelium and the main substance. As a result, in the elderly and old people there is a decrease in the tone and elasticity of the venous wall, which entails an expansion of the venous bed, a decrease in pressure in the veins.

The suction effect of the chest decreases, the amount of venous return decreases, and the phenomenon of venous stasis occurs. An increase in the capacity of the vascular bed with a simultaneous decrease in cardiac output increases the time of the general blood circulation - from 47.8 ± 2.7 s in 20-39-year-old people to 60.6 + 3.2 s in 60-69-year-olds and up to 65 , 4 ± 3.1 s at 70-79 years. The slowing down of capillary blood flow contributes to a more complete saturation of blood with oxygen in the lungs and a more complete delivery of oxygen to the tissues, which, to a certain extent, compensates for both the violation of the diffusion capacity of the lungs and the deterioration of tissue blood flow with age.

Phlebosclerosis increases the risk of venous thrombosis in the elderly. At the same time, regular exercise improves the indicators of the functions of the cardiovascular system to a greater extent than in people of the same age, but leading a sedentary lifestyle. For example, in men aged 50 and 70, who have been physically inactive for 20 years, an 8-week training session lasting 1 to 2 hours 3-5 times a week increases maximum oxygen consumption by an average of 20%.

After 35 years in men and after 45 years in women, the likelihood of developing coronary heart disease increases sharply. Between the ages of 55 and 65, 13 out of 100 men and 6 out of 100 women in the United States have died from the disease, although the National Health Program has significantly reduced the number of these diseases in recent years. The increase in the risk of developing coronary heart disease with aging is largely associated with a violation of the lipid composition of the blood (with hyperlipidemia), i.e. an increase in cholesterol and triglyceride levels in it. But these substances do not circulate freely in the blood plasma, but are transported by it in the form of lipoproteins, so it is more accurate to talk about hyperlipoproteinemia. The amount of cholesterol deposited in cell membranes, including in the vascular wall, depends on the ratio in the blood plasma of lipoproteins that extract cholesterol from membranes (high-density lipoproteins - HDL) and promote its introduction into the membrane (extra-low-density lipoproteins - VLDL and low density lipoprotein - LDL).

The HDL level reflects the dynamics of the movement of cholesterol from peripheral tissues (including the vascular wall) to the liver, where it is oxidized to bile acids and secreted in the bile. LDL and VLDL are a means of transporting fats in the body to cells, including the smooth muscles of the arterial walls. Normally, the ratio of lipoproteins that raise or lower the level of cholesterol in membranes is balanced and the ratio (LDL + VLDL) / HDL, which reflects excess cholesterol in the membranes, is low, but it increases with age. The increase in cholesterol in the membranes of vascular cells becomes a characteristic feature of the arterioconstrictor process - arteriosclerosis. This is facilitated by decreasing lipolytic and ATPase activity in vascular smooth muscle cells. The deposition of lipids in the vascular wall causes calcification and fibrotic changes, as a result, the arterial walls become narrowed, rigid and stiff, making blood flow in the tissues more difficult. This process is accelerated by eating foods rich in cholesterol and unsaturated acids. A number of factors, such as physical activity, can increase HDL production. Thus, their level is increased in the elderly using vigorous aerobic training.

Atherogenic vasoconstriction of the heart, impairing the blood supply to the myocardium, may not give clinical signs of disease for a long time. But the lack of oxygen supply to the myocardium can be detected by changes in the electrical activity of the heart with moderate physical exertion.

Respiratory system. The functions of the external respirator also show an earlier decline in the course of aging. So, the maximum ventilation of the lungs per unit time decreases between 20 and 80 years by 40%. The vital capacity of the lungs decreases by 17.5 cm3 / m2 of body surface per year due to an increase in chest rigidity, a decrease in the strength of the respiratory muscles and lung elasticity, and a deterioration in bronchial conduction.

The expiratory reserve volume is significantly reduced compared to the inspiratory volume. The residual volume increases by 13 cm3 / m2 / year. The physiological dead space of the lungs also increases with age. In old people, an increase in the rhythm of breathing is noted (up to 22-24 / min). During inhalation, the strength of the respiratory muscles is expended in a greater volume to overcome the increased elastic and inelastic resistance. At rest, this is imperceptible, but physical activity or stress for ventilation of the lungs requires more energy from the respiratory muscles than at a young age.

After physical exertion, shortness of breath often occurs, the restoration of the rhythm and depth of breathing to the initial level occurs more slowly than in young people. The decreasing diffusion capacity of the lungs and the efficiency of the inhaled air (a consequence of the reduced elasticity of the lungs and impaired bronchial conduction) can cause arterial hypoxemia. The oxygen utilization factor (the percentage of the difference between the concentration of oxygen in arterial and venous blood to its total content in arterial blood) is 1.5 times lower in old people than in young people.

Functions of the gastrointestinal tract. Many older people have difficulty swallowing. This is largely due to age-related changes in the brain stem nuclei that control the reflex act of swallowing. In the difficulty of swallowing, a decrease in the secretion of saliva, a weakening of conditioned and unconditioned salivary reflexes play a role. The elderly have decreased salivary amylase activity. The secretion of gastric juice decreases, its total and free acidity decreases, the concentration of pepsin in it decreases, achlorhydria is observed in 28% of people over 60 years old. The volume of secreted gastric juice also decreases after a standard test breakfast. At the same time, in the gastric mucosa, the number of parietal cells decreases, and epithelium atrophy is noted.

In pancreatic juice, the content of proteolytic enzymes, lipase, amylase decreases due to a weakening of the secretory function of the pancreas. Reduced and its secretory response to humoral stimuli - cholecystokinin-pacreazimin, secretin, hydrochloric acid, etc. The villi of the mucous membrane of the small intestine become shorter, as a result, the absorption zone decreases, absorption processes are disrupted. So, after 50 years, many people have a violation of the absorption of fatty acids, amino acids, vitamin B12, calcium, iron, vitamin D. The motor function of the large intestine is reduced, defecation is difficult, due to the weakening of the activity of the centers of the lumbosacral region, in which the reflex bowel arch. Weakened and gastrocolonial and duodenocolonal reflexes, increasing the motor activity of the large intestine. The weakening of intestinal motility is accompanied by constipation. Violation of the secretory and motor function of the intestine contributes to the reproduction of microflora in the gastrointestinal tract, including microorganisms pathogenic for humans. With age, the motor function of the gallbladder and its ability to evacuate bile decrease.

In old people, the detoxification function of the liver is reduced. In particular, this is associated with a reduced ability to synthesize cytochromes P45O, the main elements of microsomal oxidation in hepatocytes.

Endocrine functions. Changes in the hormonal regulation of its functions arising during aging of the body can develop at the level of hormone production, their concentration in the internal environment, at the level of hormone-binding proteins and, finally, at the level of their reception by cells. These changes decrease the response of target tissues to hormones. With aging, the secretory function of the thyroid, pancreas, gonads, adrenal cortex, pineal gland decreases.

A decrease in the function of the thyroid gland with aging is expressed in a decrease in the concentration of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in the blood, a decrease in the fixation of radioactive iodine by the thyroid gland. At the same time, there is a slowdown in the use of thyroxine in the periphery, the degradation of radioactive thyroxine decreases by approximately 50% from 20 to 80 years. The sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary complex to the inhibitory effect of T3 is reduced, which may play a role in the age-related increase in the basal TSH level in healthy elderly men and women.

In the pancreas, the ratio of a- and B-cells is disrupted due to a decrease in the latter. The insulin content in the islets of Langerhans changes little with age, but the biological activity of the circulating hormone is reduced in the elderly, the reaction of the B cells of their pancreas to hyperglycemia is reduced, as the body ages, the sensitivity of tissues to the action of insulin decreases. Hence, the elderly develop hyperglycemia after a meal, which in turn causes reactive hyperinsulinemia, which ensures the use of glucose by muscle tissue. But at the same time, hyperinsulinemia increases the mass of fat, the concentration in the blood of VLDL, LDL, triglycerides and cholesterol, which accelerates the development of atherosclerosis, forms metabolic immunosuppression. The latter is especially dangerous because immunodeficiency increases a person's risk of cancer by 100-1000 times.

Sex hormones. Testosterone production in the testes is reduced in older men. In plasma, the content of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone regularly decreases in men from 18 to 80 years old. So, in old people, the concentration of free plasma testosterone decreases to half or 2/3 of the level characteristic of young men. In parallel, the content of testicular estrogens in the plasma and the ratio - free estrogens / free testosterone, increase. At the same time, the free fraction of estrogens decreases more slowly over time, compared with androgens. These hormonal shifts are accompanied by a decrease in testicular mass, spermatogonia size, and sperm count. However, spermatogenesis persists into old age. Libido, the frequency of sexual intercourse in the elderly is reduced. At the same time, in men, sexual potency can persist up to 80-90 years.

In women, the secretion of estrogens and their content in the urine regularly decreases from 30 to 50 years, although the excretion of extradiol and estrone in the urine continues to decrease in the future. After the cessation of reproductive ability in women, the secretion of gonadotropins of the anterior pituitary gland (folliculin-stimulating, luteinizing) increases, because the secretion of estrogen decreases, and the negative feedback mechanism is no longer included in the regulation. In women in the period of deep menopause (after 60-65 years), there is an involution of the uterus, thinning of the vaginal epithelium, atrophy of the vulva, and a decrease in the mammary glands.

During the aging of the body, the production of polypeptide hormones of the pineal gland decreases. In the adrenal glands, cortisol production decreases, but in the same proportion as metabolically active body weight. Its content in plasma is not changed, but the percentage of hormone renewal is slowed down.

The production of aldosterone in the elderly is reduced, as well as the content of this hormone in the plasma.

Heat exchange. In older people, the regulation of body temperature is impaired. This is due to the lack of control mechanisms of the hypothalamus in assessing the ambient temperature. Responses to cooling in the elderly (muscle tremors, decreased blood flow in the hands, increased oxygen consumption) are reduced or absent, hence the risk of hypothermia. The resistance of the body of the elderly also decreases to the action of heat. Sweating in them begins after a longer exposure to heat on the body than in young people. After being in the heat, their body temperature returns to normal more slowly than that of young people. Although the increase in cutaneous blood flow due to heat is more pronounced in older people than in young people, their maximum ability to sweat is lower. At the same time, the ability to acclimatize and the resistance of acclimated elderly people to moderate stress is not noticeably impaired with age. However, old age is the limiting factor for vigorous work during the heat.

Kidney function. During aging, the kidneys undergo changes in accordance with shifts in the circulatory system. Due to sclerotic changes in the vessels, significant zones of the kidneys in old age are ischeminized, and in an 80-year-old person, from 30 to 40% of the nephrons are sclerosed. In old people, the volume of glomerular filtration, plasma renal blood flow, and the concentration capacity of the kidneys are reduced by almost 50%. For example, a decrease in effective renal blood flow after 40 years is expressed as follows: effective renal blood flow = 840 - 6.44 * number of years; decrease in glomerular filtration after 40 years: glomerular filtration = 153.2-0.96-number of years. However, the threshold for plasma glucose for excretion in the kidney may even rise, so that glucosuria may not be sufficiently pronounced in the elderly with diabetes. Medicinal substances that are excreted in the urine of young people can accumulate in the body of old people due to insufficient excretory function of the kidneys. Of the 185 metabolic products detected in human urine, at least 60 change the concentration with aging. Many old people suffer from nocturia (excretion of a large part of the daily amount of urine at night), which correlates with the aforementioned lack of concentration of the kidneys.

A decrease in the ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine is due to the fact that the hardening of the arteries and vessels of the glomeruli in the cortical layer of the kidneys is accompanied by an increase in blood flow in the medulla, in the rectal arterioles and the capillary network formed by them. The increase in blood flow in the renal medulla enhances the leaching of osmotically active substances from the interstitial space of the medulla, reducing the reabsorption of water and the effectiveness of the counter-current-rotary system. The decrease in the ability of the kidneys to retain water in the body is compensated by the increased secretion of ADH by the hypothalamic-pituitary system. Increased secretion of ADH is associated with the increasing sensitivity of osmoreceptors to osmotically active substances in the blood and tissue fluid in humans after 50 years. Due to these compensatory mechanisms, the intravascular and extracellular volumes of body fluids and their composition in the elderly are little changed.

Features of sensory systems. Among older people, about 32% have a hearing impairment that prevents them from using the telephone, almost 46% are unable to read, because their visual acuity is impaired.

Vision. With age, lipid infiltration of the cornea develops, as a result of which the so-called senile arches bordering the limbus are formed. The lens of the eye becomes inelastic with age, as a result of which the accommodative capacity of the eye decreases and presbyopia (senile farsightedness) develops. These changes usually begin to appear from the age of 40. New blood vessels develop in the retina, and their high permeability leads to hemorrhages and exudation. Normally, damaged retinal cells are eliminated by pigment epithelial cells and macrophages, but with age, these mechanisms are damaged and the cells are "uncleaned", as a result of which the rods and cones surrounded by them are ultimately doomed to death. Changes in the vitreous body cause the appearance of small opaque bodies in it, which are perceived as black dots floating in the field of view. Cataracts, glaucoma, rhinopathy are associated with diabetes of the elderly or hypertension, and they are classified as diseases accompanying the aging process.

Hearing. Hearing impairment in the elderly is associated with a decrease in the elasticity of the tympanic membrane and basilar membrane of the cochlea, as well as the sensitivity of the hair cells. Senile hearing loss (presbyacusia), impaired sound perception are caused by atrophic and degenerative changes in the organ of Corti and the spiral ganglion of the cochlea. In some of the elderly, this is accompanied by hypersensitivity to loud sound and noise. Tinnitus and hearing loss at a distance increase with age.

Taste and smell. With age, the number of taste buds decreases, while saliva production also decreases. Both of these circumstances dull the sense of taste. Degeneration of the olfactory neurons is responsible for the impairment of smell perception in the elderly.

External integuments. With age, visible changes in the skin appear. By about 55 years of age, the elasticity of the skin decreases, the thickness of the epidermis, hypodermis, and subcutaneous fat decreases, which increases its wrinkling. After 60 years, the number of non-functioning capillaries and arterioles increases, the sebaceous, sweat glands and hair undergo dystrophy. The skin becomes thinner and easier to injure. As a result, even after moderate injuries, numerous bruises occur. Elderly people often have long-lasting skin ulcers, which are the result of skin vulnerability. The reaction of the skin of the elderly to thermal and mechanical stimuli decreases, the brightness of the pilomotor reflex and dermographism decreases. Hair color changes with age, which is associated with a deficiency of the enzyme tyrosinase, which is responsible for the formation of hair coloring pigment.

The musculoskeletal system. After 40-45 years, the total mass of bones decreases, which is associated with a decrease in their matrix, the number of bone bars, although the calcification of bone tissue changes little. This phenomenon is called osteoporosis. In osteoporosis, both the density of the long bones and the vertebrae decrease, and the spongy bones are rarefied. Bone loss is significant: 3% in 10 years of life after 40 years in men and 8% in women. Osteoporosis, which severely restricts physical capacity, is observed in 25% of older women and 17% in men. In women during menopause, the loss of estrogen accelerates this process. It is difficult to determine when osteoporosis changes from physiological changes to pathological ones. Added to the above, a lack of vitamin D can lead to insufficient calcification of the skeleton - as a result, osteomalacia occurs - softening of the bones with deformation of the skeleton. Both of these processes predispose to bone fractures. The cartilage of the joints wears out, becomes thin, which after 50 years leads to an increase in osteoarthritis. The intervertebral discs are rich in water, but with age, its amount decreases, the intervertebral discs become thinner. Their thinning and growth of osteophytes (pathological bone growths on the surface of the bone) of the vertebral bodies leads to the fact that osteophytes begin to press on the roots of the spinal nerves, on the spinal cord, causing acute pain - one of the symptoms of lumbago, osteochondrosis.

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Regularities and features of the organism's vital activity at the early stages of ontogenesis. Characteristics of the processes of physical and mental development of a child of primary school age. Functional maturation of the brain, features of the formation of thinking.

abstract, added 10/19/2012


Definition of ontogenesis as an individual development of an organism from a zygote (vegetative primordium) to natural death. Morphological and physiological characteristics of the stages of plant development: embryonic, juvenile, reproductive and old age.

The skin is also constantly changing: it loses its tone, elasticity and attractiveness, becomes thinner, dehydrated, becomes flabby, dry, and wrinkles. But the aging of the body does not occur in all people at the same time - in some it is early enough, in others the elasticity and freshness of the skin remains for a long time. The arrival of old age is a biological regularity in a person's life, but if you make some effort, you can postpone its arrival for some period. It is wrong to think that using only creams and masks, you can achieve this. Only a correct lifestyle, adherence to hygienic standards, in conjunction with cosmetics, will allow you to maintain a pleasant appearance for many years.
Particularly important is the alternation of mental and physical stress during work and rest. Physical education is mandatory, which can be started at any age. Try to schedule your time so that you spend most of it outdoors. Ventilate the rooms in which you work, relax, sleep more often. Walks to nature, excursions are useful.
Nutrition should be of great importance at this age. It should be regular, complete, complete and, whenever possible, varied, rich in vitamins, but no frills. You can not overeat - constantly monitor your weight, some elderly people go to the other extreme - sharply reduce the consumption of meat, fish, eggs and others necessary for the proper functioning of the body.
Sleep should be full, at least 7-8 hours a day. It is advisable to sleep during the day - better before lunch. Those with poor eyesight should wear glasses or contact lenses. Some people think that glasses are a sign of old age, but this is not at all the case. Many people, almost from early childhood, have to wear glasses due to visual impairment. Oculists believe that people over 40, especially those who often spend time in front of a computer monitor, should use glasses. It is during these years that vision begins to weaken. The lens of the eye changes, its refractive power decreases. You have to squint to see small objects or read the fine print. Many women categorically refuse to wear glasses, because, in their opinion, they do not suit them, they spoil their external image. But this is, perhaps, an erroneous opinion, since glasses can correct some facial features, hide flaws.
Aging skin care should be aimed at increasing its tone. Usually, a lot depends on the individual character of the skin. This also has to be taken into account when choosing cosmetic procedures.
It is advisable to wash your face with cold water, it tones the skin, improving blood circulation, narrowing the pores. It is a good idea to add ordinary kitchen or sea salt, lemon juice, tea decoction and table vinegar to water, which must be softened, in a proportion of 1 teaspoon per 1 liter of water.
In old age, the skin loses moisture to a large extent. This loss is compensated for by applying creams in a "wet way".
Massage is an effective way to treat aging skin. Hygienic massage is designed to maintain the elasticity of the skin, the therapeutic one removes wrinkles. Bags under the eyes, sagging cheeks, double chin and other age-related face and neck defects, as well as those that appeared after rapid weight loss or subsequently various diseases. The massage improves the nutrition of the skin and the outflow of "worked" substances, cleanses from sweat, grease, dirt, normalizes the amount of substances in the tissue, improves tone, makes the skin elastic, firm, smooth. Also, the massage procedure contributes to a positive effect on the entire body. Massage is a rather complicated procedure and its improper performance can cause harm, therefore massage is best done by a qualified masseur in a cosmetology office.

The period of mature age of women is characterized by a number of morphological and functional features. It is conventionally divided into the first period (22-35 years) and the second (36-55 years).

By the age of 25-30, the human body reaches the peak of its physical capabilities, after which, if you do not engage in systematic training, wilting begins. That is why, after 30 years, physical culture should become the rule of organizing the entire way of life - a true health-improving imperative of a person.

Training at this age involves the solution of three main tasks:

1) an increase in the functionality of the cardiovascular system and respiratory system;

2) hardening of the body;

3) prevention of joint dysfunctions.

Maturity is the longest period of ontogenesis, characterized by a tendency to achieve the highest development of a person's spiritual, intellectual and physical abilities. Mature women make up the bulk of women employed in the manufacturing sector. They are entrusted with the social function of motherhood and raising children. Mature age is characterized by a period of motor deficit, in contrast to adolescence, which is recognized as a period of biological optimum.

The period of the first mature age, corresponding to the maximum flowering of the individual physical capabilities of a woman (22-35 years old), is available for practicing any kind of sport. The peculiarities of the choice and dosage of loads should be determined in this period only by the state of health, physical development, individual, functional capabilities of the body and the interests of those involved. It is at this age in the individual life of women that the processes of the coordination state of the body and readiness for pregnancy are most pronounced.

At the age of 25-30, and sometimes even earlier, the processes of involution of the motor function begin, which, like the processes of biological development, do not proceed in parallel, but heterochronously. There is a decrease in functionality, especially respiration and blood circulation.

The function of motherhood led to the formation of a number of features of the physique of women: a significant length of the spinal column in relation to height; short and wide chest; the characteristic setting of the head and neck of the femur, which explains the large amplitude in the hip joint; special configuration and size of the pelvis.

Therefore, when working with women of mature age, it is necessary to widely use special exercises to strengthen the muscles of the abdominal girdle and pelvic floor. The exercises we offer are such as: keeping the legs on the surface, abducting, bringing straight legs in the horizontal and vertical planes ("scissors"); alternating bending of the legs in the knee joints ("bicycle") and others help to strengthen these muscles.

The problem of overweight, health promotion, prevention of involutional changes is relevant for women of this age, since in addition to hypokenetic conditions of work and life, the very physiology of the female body contributes to the deposition of subcutaneous and internal fat in the body, which is confirmed by the rounded shapes of the body of women.

Studies have provided reliable data on changes in body weight with age, with the most noticeable increase in weight in the period of 25-29 years and 30-34 years by 4.1 kg. The development of subcutaneous fat can account for up to 28% of body weight. This is most likely determined by the fact that it is at the age after 23 years that most women complete regular physical exercises, significantly reduce their motor regime due to the peculiarities of work, family life and other reasons.

It is clear that in order to prevent the natural increase in body weight, it is necessary to recommend regular exercise, which is aimed at maintaining an optimal weight, starting from the age of 25.

In the period of the second mature age (36-55 years), involutional processes in the body are activated, pronounced age-related changes occur. During these years, the preventive role of physical exercises increases, especially for those who first started active physical education or resumed previously interrupted activities.

The features of the period of the second adulthood are: a decrease in the volume of oxygen consumption per 1 kg of weight and heat production per 1 cm of body surface; decrease in hormonal function; deterioration of tissue elasticity; muscle atrophy and a decrease in the content of energy substances in them; deterioration of myocardial contractility; slowing down of blood flow, a decrease in the volume of circulating blood; changes in the elasticity of blood vessels; decrease in the excitability of the respiratory center; violation of fat and carbohydrate metabolism, difficulty in the formation of protein compounds. This period is characterized by changes in the musculoskeletal system, limitation of the mobility of the joints and chest.

In the second mature age, changes are observed in the activity of the nervous system (decreased mobility of nervous processes, difficulty in the formation of new reflex connections, lengthening of reactions that worsen orientation, dysregulation, changes in the psyche).

The level of a woman's performance is largely determined by the functional reserves of the body, the formation of which is significantly influenced by muscle activity. Women have less functional reserves than men. Breathing in women is characterized by lower volumes of lung capacity, higher frequency indicators. This accounts for the lower efficiency of breathing in women.

In women, special attention should be paid to the periodicity of a number of physiological functions corresponding to the ovarian-menstrual cycle (OMC). Efficiency depends on the restructuring of the body's functions in different phases of the CMC: in the 1st, 3rd, and 5th phases, the functional state deteriorates and the efficiency decreases, and in the 2nd and 4th phases of the CMC, the efficiency increases.

In women of mature age, menopause inevitably occurs - the development of biological aging. For most European women, menopause is between 44-50 years. But already from the age of 35 in the female body, there is a gradual decrease in the level of estrogen produced by the ovaries. In this regard, fertility (fertility) decreases and various menstrual irregularities may occur.

In more than 60% of women, the period of menopause is accompanied by a severe health disorder called climacteric syndrome. This syndrome includes many manifestations characteristic of diseases of the autonomic nervous, cardiovascular, genitourinary systems, etc. Some women have complaints of dizziness, headache, "hot flashes" in various parts of the body, melancholy, feeling of chronic fatigue, loss of interest in life ("mental confusion"), sleep disturbance, general asthenization. In other women in the climacteric syndrome, hypertension dominates (82% of women admitted to various departments of general hospitals showed an increase in postmenopausal blood pressure, in half of them the pressure "increased" during menopause).

According to many authors, in the period before menopause, starting from 34-40 years old, it is necessary to reconsider the lifestyle. The main components of a healthy lifestyle in this period should be: rational nutrition, physical activity and correction of hormonal status with the help of low-dose monophasic contraceptive drugs.

In this regard, the role of systematic physical exercise is especially increasing. Physical education for women over 35 provides not only a delay in the aging process, but in a number of cases leads to the restoration of impaired functions up to the level of 25-30 years, for people who are not involved in physical education.