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Detailed decoding of the biochemical analysis of urine in a cat. Cat urine test

Every caring owner should know how often a healthy cat can go to the toilet. Some animals experience abnormal urination. Some situations can be quite serious and talk about a threat to the pet's life. Therefore, any deviations in this process are an alarming signal.

Healthy urination rates in cats and cats

The average daily volume of urine excreted in cats can vary from 50 to 200 ml. The figure depends on many indicators:

  • nutrition;
  • the number of years lived.

For example, if a kitten has not reached the age of 3 months, then his trips to the toilet will be very rare. Small cats and cats piss once a day. At 3-4 months, kittens pee 2-3 times a day.

If a kitten under 4 months old pees once a day, don't worry, this is a variant of the norm.

Cats and cats

Urination of adult cats and cats is different, but to a small extent. This is influenced by the specificity of the structure of the urinary system of females and males. Cats have a narrower and longer urethra than cats, so they have a slightly different urinary outflow. It does not matter whether a normal cat or a castrated one, urination occurs up to five times a day, provided that it is well-nourished. Females, even spayed, under normal nutrition conditions, pee one to three times a day.

Deviations

During the life of each animal, some abnormalities in urination may occur. At the same time, there are safe cases, and there are pathological ones that require treatment.

Safe deviations

Rare abnormalities may occur in cats and cats when urinating. At this time, the animal can write no more often than once every few days, while violations in urination are caused by external factors and are not indicators of the animal's ill health. This may be due to:


As for the last point, in order to recover, the cat will take up to three days. Cats are a little more complicated. Females take up to 5–7 days to recover. This is because the operation is abdominal and affects deeply located organs and tissues.

Ideally, the cat should write through the catheter after surgery. But in reality, animals are often discharged home after they recover from anesthesia and the doctor is convinced of their adequate health.

Deviations associated with pathology

If the cat is unable to urinate for more than two days, suffers from difficult urine output, or urine comes out in scanty doses, then the animal must be carefully examined.

Perhaps the pet suffers from an inflammatory process in the organs of the genitourinary system. Its signs can be the following conditions:


Frequent urination in a cat or cat

Unnaturally frequent urination in cats and cats (pollakiuria) occurs due to hypersensitivity of the bladder walls. Even the minimum fullness of the organ leads to an urge. Irritation can be caused by a number of reasons:


If the pet often visits the litter box, and the owner does not understand why this is happening, then you should definitely visit the veterinarian to find out the reasons. Frequent urination does not always signal that the pet is sick with something, but it is best to make sure of this by conducting a diagnosis so that timely assistance is possible.

During my life, cats have appeared in my house several times. All were outdoors and were taken into the house from critical conditions (thrown into the trash, froze in winter). Not a single animal, regardless of age, wrote during the first day. After the seals recovered from the shock (warmed up, ate, washed, slept), the first thing they did was to go around the territory and get acquainted with the new possessions, and only after at least a day they wrote and began to lick themselves.

Video: Frequent urination in cats

Difficulty urinating a cat or cat

Any problems that can lead to difficulty urinating fall into two groups:

  • pathology of the bladder;
  • diseases of the urinary tract.

If we talk about cats, females, then problems with difficulty in urine excretion are associated with the second group of pathologies.

Old and neutered cats often suffer from complete blockage of the urethra. This is facilitated by uric acid salts, the excess of which is deposited in the kidneys in the form of stones. This usually happens if the animal eats a lot of raw fish during its life (the general opinion that this is an excellent food for cats is wrong).

Pathologies associated with the lower parts of the urinary system have common features:


The cause must be found as soon as possible so that it can be quickly eliminated.

It is believed that 75% of cases of poor urine flow and scanty discharge are due to cystitis.

Acute urinary retention

Acute urinary retention is a condition in which the animal does not urinate during the day. It is dangerous and life threatening for your pet. Excessive overflow can rupture the bladder, causing urine to spill into the abdomen. Intoxication of the body occurs, and then the death of the pet occurs.

Acute urinary retention is more often detected in cats, while in cats it belongs to the category of infrequent pathologies.

The cause of this dangerous pathology is most often stones that block the outflow of urine. However, there are a number of other factors that experts identify:

  • Obstruction (overlapping) of the urethra with a blood clot or mucus, pus. Often occurs in cats that have had a penile injury or disease associated with an infectious carrier that has affected the specified organ. It can also be caused by an infection in the bladder.
  • Kidney dysfunction. The animal's body becomes unable to excrete even the smallest amount of urine. It could be due to organ perforation or tumor.
  • Spinal injury or infection that has invaded the spinal cord. In this case, the innervation of the urinary organs and urinary excretion may be disrupted, due to which the animal stops urinating.

Acute urinary retention requires immediate medical attention. There they can take:


My kitty has had her bladder catheterized several times. But in this way the problem could not be solved. The emerging tumor prevented the outflow of urine. We agreed to the operation, but, unfortunately, the cat did not survive it, she was already an elderly lady.

Video: acute urinary retention in cats

How to avoid urinary problems

Every owner of a cat or cat should be aware that if the animal once gets a similar ailment, it will be quite difficult to get rid of it. In order for a pet to feel comfortable and lead a full-fledged lifestyle, it is necessary to take a number of preventive measures and periodically visit a veterinarian. You can prevent possible deviations when urinating by adhering to some tips:

  • The animal must be vaccinated on time to reduce the risk of developing infectious diseases in the body.
  • The pet should not be hypothermic.
  • The water must be clean and fresh. In addition, the animal must have unrestricted access to fluid.
  • The diet should be free of prohibited foods and should be formulated according to the nutritional guidelines for the cat.
  • The animal should move a lot, which is facilitated by outdoor games (at least 30 minutes a day).

If you have problems urinating, your pet should be treated by a veterinarian. Self-administration of drugs can aggravate the condition of the pet and put his life in danger.

We recently completed studies that showed that urine pH in cats is not a good predictor of calcium oxalate oversaturation. Although metabolic acidosis is associated with a decrease in urinary calcium concentration, it is possible to formulate a diet for cats to maintain urine pH at 5.8-6.2, thereby providing a low urine RSS with calcium oxalate. This prevents the formation of struvite and calcium oxalate crystals.

In some cases of persistent calcium oxalate crystalluria or a recurrent form of this type of urolithiasis, it is recommended to resort to ancillary drug treatment. For this purpose, potassium, thiazide diuretics and vitamin B6 can be used. Potassium citrate is widely used for the prevention of recurrence of calcium oxalate urolithiasis in humans, since this salt, reacting with calcium, forms soluble ones, which can lead to a deficiency of these elements in the body of animals. Special studies of the efficacy of hydrochlorothiazide in calcium oxalate urolithiasis and the safety of its use in cats have not been conducted. Therefore, for their treatment, this drug cannot yet be recommended.

The effectiveness of the treatment of urolithiasis should be monitored through urine analyzes of patients, which are advisable to be carried out at first with an interval of two, then at four weeks, and in the subsequent period - every three to six months. Since not all cats with calcium oxalate urolithiasis excrete calcium oxalate crystals in the urine, X-ray examination of patients should be performed every three to six months. This makes it possible to diagnose relapses of urolithiasis in a timely manner. Finding uroliths at a stage when they are still quite small in size allows them to be removed by flushing the urinary tract of cats with water under pressure.

Treatment approaches for the localization of urinary stones in the kidneys and ureters

The literature on the most effective treatment for cats with uroliths localized in the kidneys and ureters is controversial. Kiles et al reported that 92% of cats with ureteral uroliths present with azotemia on initial examination. In 67% of cases, several uroliths are found in the ureter, and in 63% of cats with this pathology, stones are localized in both ureters. Nephrectomy is rarely used for this pathology because of the high probability of urolith formation in both ureters simultaneously, the increased severity of renal failure, concomitant such form of urolithiasis, and the high incidence of recurrence of the latter. Surgical removal of urinary stones from the kidney involves the inevitable loss of nephrons. Therefore, this method of treatment is not recommended until it becomes obvious that the uroliths in the kidney actually cause a serious illness in the animal. The indication for dissection of the ureter in order to remove uroliths from it is the progressive development of dropsy of the renal pelvis. The operation is performed only if there is conclusive evidence that urinary stones are localized in the ureter. Cats may experience complications such as accumulation of urine in the abdomen and stricture of the ureter after this surgery. An alternative to surgical treatment is conservative therapy. The palliative method of treatment in 30% of cases ensures the displacement of the urolith from the ureter to the bladder. Lithotripsy is widely used to treat humans, but in veterinary medicine this approach has not yet become a routine method for removing stones from the kidneys and ureters.

Phosphate-calcium uroliths

The establishment and elimination of conditions that contribute to the formation of calcium phosphate uroliths is the first and most important stage in the prevention of this type of urolithiasis. The cat should be examined for primary parathyroidism, hypercalcemia, high urinary calcium and / or phosphate, and urinary alkalinity. Analysis of the history data can provide information about whether diet therapy of another type of urolithiasis has been previously carried out and whether alkalizing agents have been used for this purpose. If it was not possible to diagnose a primary disease in a patient, against the background of which phosphate-calcium urolithiasis has developed, then they resort to the same treatment strategy that is used for oxalate-calcium urolithiasis. However, the necessary precautions should be taken to prevent an excessive increase in urine pH, which is often the case when a cat is receiving special foods for the treatment of calcium oxalate urolithiasis.

Urate uroliths

The frequency of detection in cats of urate uroliths is lower than struvite and calcium oxalate - less than 6% of cases of urate urolithiasis are recorded in Siamese cats, and 9 out of 321 in Egyptian Mau.

Urate uroliths can form in cats with portosystemic anastomosis and in various forms of severe liver dysfunction. Perhaps this is due to a decrease in the level of conversion of ammonium to urea, which leads to hyperammonemia. Urate uroliths in cats with portosystemic anastomosis usually contain struvite. Urate uroliths are also found in the following cases:

With infections of the urinary tract, accompanied by an increase in the concentration of ammonia in the urine;

With metabolic acidosis and strongly alkalized urine;

When cats are fed a purine-rich diet, such as from the liver or other internal organs,

In most cases, the pathogenesis of this type of urolithiasis remains unknown.

Theoretically, the urate type of urolithiasis lends itself to correction with the help of nutritional therapy. However, there is no published clinical trial data on the efficacy of special diets for treating this condition in cats.

The feeding strategy of cats diagnosed with urate urolithiasis should be aimed at reducing the purine content of the diet. As with other types of urolithiasis, it is necessary to stimulate the consumption of large amounts of water by sick animals, as well as increase the moisture content of the feed. This approach helps to reduce the concentration of urine and its saturation with compounds from which uroliths are formed.

Alkalization of urine

Alkaline urine contains little ionized ammonia, so raising urine pH is considered an effective way to reduce the risk of ammonium urate stones. Plant-based foods with low protein levels induce alkalization in urine, but potassium citrate may be required to enhance this effect. Its dosage is selected for each patient individually, guided by the results of determining the pH of urine, which should be maintained at a level of 6.8-7.2. An increase in this indicator above 7.5 should be avoided. since in strongly alkalized urine, favorable conditions can be created for the crystallization of calcium phosphate. If the cat is fed a plant-based food, then it must be balanced in all nutrients and meet the individual needs of the animal.

Xanthine oxidase inhibitors

Allopurinol is an inhibitor of xanthine oxidase, an enzyme responsible for the catalytic conversion of xanthine and hypoxanthine to uric acid. It is used to treat other species of animals in order to increase the excretion of urate in the urine. Although one publication reported that allopurinol was administered orally to cats at a dose of 9 mg / kg body weight per day, its efficacy and potential toxicity are unclear. Therefore, this drug cannot yet be recommended for the treatment of cats.

In the process of dissolution of uroliths, it is necessary to monitor the change in their size. For this, an overview and double contrast radiographic examination is performed, as well as an ultrasound scan every 4-6 weeks. After complete dissolution of uroliths, it is recommended to confirm this fact using ultrasound or double contrast cystography. In the future, it is advisable to repeat such examinations at least every two months throughout the year, since the risk of recurrence of the formation of cystine urinary stones is extremely high.The effectiveness of treatment is also confirmed by urine tests, which are performed at intervals of 3-6 months.

Cystine uroliths

Drug therapy to dissolve cystine uroliths in cats has not yet been developed. Small cystine uroliths can be removed from the urinary tract by flushing with high pressure water. Large urinary stones must be surgically removed.

If an attempt is made to dissolve cystine uroliths, then all efforts should be directed to reducing the concentration of cystine in the urine and increasing its solubility. This goal is usually achieved by reducing the content of methionine and cystine in the diet while using preparations containing thiol.

These drugs interact with cystine, exchanging thiol disulfide radicals. As a result of this interaction, a complex is formed in the urine, which differs from cystine in greater solubility. It is recommended to give N-2-mercaptopropionyl-glycine to cats at a dose of 12-20 mc / kg body weight with an interval of 12 hours.

Alkalization of urine

The solubility of cystine depends on the pH level of the urine in cats, but increases in alkaline urine. You can increase the pH of urine by using a diet containing potassium citrate, or by giving animals this drug orally.

In the process of dissolving urinary stones, it is necessary to monitor the change in their size. To do this, cats regularly undergo a survey and double contrast radiographic examination, as well as ultrasound scanning at intervals of 4-6 weeks. After complete dissolution of the uroliths, it is recommended to confirm this fact using ultrasound or double contrast cystography. In the future, it is advisable to repeat such examinations at least every two months throughout the year, since the risk of recurrence of the formation of cystine urinary stones is extremely high.The effectiveness of treatment is also confirmed by urine tests, which are performed at intervals of 2-3 months.

In the article I will give the decoding of the results of the biochemical analysis of the urine of the cat. I'll tell you what indicators are the norm. I will describe what impurities can be detected in the analysis, and what are the reasons for this phenomenon.

The study of urine of cats and dogs is carried out for diagnosis and further treatment. Timely laboratory analysis allows you to timely identify serious disorders of the urinary system caused by infection, trauma, etc.

The liquid for analysis is collected in three ways: using a special filler that does not absorb liquid, by puncturing the bladder and a catheter. The last two procedures are carried out without fail in a veterinary clinic.

The results of the study of cat urine are recorded in a special plate, which greatly facilitates their decoding.


Physical indicators

This group includes the following indicators:

  • Quantity... Normally, an adult cat, weighing 4-5 kg, secretes about 100-150 ml of urine per day. An increase in this amount indicates the possible development of diabetes mellitus, pyelonephritis, chronic renal failure. Lack of urine can be observed with dehydration caused by diarrhea, vomiting.
  • Sediment... Its insignificant amount is acceptable. It consists of epithelial cells, calculi (crystals and salts), microorganisms. If the amount of sediment exceeds the norm, this indicates the development of the disease.
  • Color or COL... Cat urine should be yellow in color. A red or brownish color indicates the presence of blood in the urine. indicates an increased amount of bilirubin. If pus is present, the urine will be slightly greenish. Very light, almost white urine indicates an increase in the amount of phosphates.
  • Transparency or CLA... Normally, cat urine is clear. In case of various diseases, it may contain inclusions of salts, bacteria, leukocytes, erythrocytes, and fatty drops. Also, the transparency depends on the period and temperature of storage of urine.
  • Smell... The appearance of an acetone odor in urine indicates the development of diabetes mellitus. If the urine smells like ammonia, the animal is developing a bacterial infection. Also, some foods and medicines can change the smell of urine.
  • Density... In cats, urine should have an average density of 1.020-1.040. An increase in these indicators indicates the presence of protein and glucose in urine. Also, density may increase with intravenous fluids and certain medications. A decrease in the indicator indicates chronic renal failure, kidney disease, diabetes mellitus.

Cat urine chemistry

This group includes the study of indicators such as pH, protein, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, ketone bodies, nitrites, erythrocytes, hemoglobin.

Normally, the alkaline pH balance in cats is 5-7.5. An increase indicates alkalization, which may be the result of the development of cystitis, the presence of a large amount of plant foods in the diet, and hyperkalemia.

A decrease in the indicator (acidification of urine) may be the result of chronic renal failure, dehydration, fever, prolonged fasting, diabetes mellitus.

Proteins should not be present in the urine.

The permitted concentration is 100 mg per liter. Protein build-up can be the result of increased stress, eating a cat food rich in protein.

Proteinuria is also observed with anemia, heart failure, dehydration, fever, diabetes mellitus. Often the appearance of protein accompanies the development of cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, kidney disease (amyloidosis, pyelonephritis, etc.).

The appearance of glucose in the urine is abnormal. This may indicate the development of diabetes mellitus. Also, the appearance of glucose is observed against the background of intravenous infusions and the introduction of steroids, adrenaline.

The presence of bilirubin in the urine is due to jaundice. The norm of urobilinogen is no more than 10 mg per liter. An increase in this indicator may indicate the following diseases: enterocolitis, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, poisoning with toxic substances.

The appearance of ketone bodies in the urine is observed in diabetic coma, prolonged fasting, and fever. The presence of nitrites indicates that the infection has entered the urinary tract.

The presence of hemoglobin can be a sign of babesiosis.

The appearance of erythrocytes in the urine indicates the development of such serious pathologies as leptospirosis, pyelonephritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, tumors in the bladder cavity, cystitis. Also, blood appears with urolithiasis, kidney injury and other urinary organs.


Sediment microscopy

The development of the disease can be recognized by microscopic examination of the sediment:

  • Epithelium... A significant increase indicates nephritis, intoxication, nephrosis.
  • Erythrocytes... The allowed content is 0-3 per field of view. An increase in levels is often seen with infections.
  • Cylinders... An increase in the amount indicates the development of inflammatory processes in the kidneys, bleeding into the parenchyma. Also, cilinduria is observed with pyelonephritis, fever, dehydration.
  • Bacteria... Small amounts of bacteria may be present in urine collected with a catheter. An increase indicates the development of an infection or urolithiasis.
  • Leukocytes... An increase in the level occurs with nephritis, glomerulonephritis and other infectious diseases.
  • Salt... Often the appearance of calculi (sand, oxalates, struvites, etc.) in the urine speaks of.

Urine examination is an effective measure for diagnosing diseases of the urinary system.

With this analysis, the development of an infection can be recognized in a timely manner. However, a slight deviation from the norm of some indicators is sometimes observed when taking certain medications, eating disorders or drinking regimen.

Urinalysis is an important method for examining patients with diseases of the lower urinary tract. Urine samples for analysis can be obtained in a variety of ways, although cystocentesis is the preferred method in most cases. Collecting urine from a litter box, collecting midstream urine with free urine or catheterization are alternatives. When interpreting the results of the study, the method of obtaining urine should be taken into account. This article will discuss the differences between normal urine readings in cats and dogs, as well as the limitations of some of the tests available.

Urine samples can be collected using cystocentesis, catheterization, free-flow midstream, and directly from the litter box.

Depending on the test requirements, it is perfectly acceptable to use urine collected from a litter box or obtained from free urination. A urine sample obtained from a litter box may be “contaminated” with epithelial cells, contain an increased amount of protein and bacteria from the urethra / genital tract, as well as contamination from the litter box, which may affect the interpretation of some test results.

Table 1 summarizes the "optimal" requirements for urine samples, although it is important to emphasize that urine samples obtained from a litter box can nevertheless be used for bacteriuria, protein / creatinine ratios and other indicators, just in this case the interpretation of the results will be more difficult.

Table 1. Preferred type of urine sample for analysis

Obtaining urine samples from a cat by cystocentesis

Urine samples can be obtained from awake cats using gentle animal restraint. One-inch 23 gauge Stubbs needles can be used with a 5 ml or 10 ml syringe.

The patient should be held as straight as possible in a standing position, in a lateral recumbent or dorsal recumbent position. In any case, it is best to keep the cat in the position in which it will feel most comfortable. If the cat is tense, palpating the bladder is much more difficult, so it is in the doctor's best interest to keep the cat as calm as possible. The bladder is palpated and fixed with one hand, and the syringe is manipulated with the other hand. If the cat is lying on its back, the bladder can be extended caudally so as to anchor it between the hand and the pelvic bones (Figure 1a).


Cystocentesis in cats, supine position
Cystocentesis in cats, lateral position

Picture 1... Urine collection from the bladder (cystocentesis) in cats can be performed in a standing position, in a supine position (a) and in a lateral position (b)

If the cat is in a standing or lateral recumbency position, the bladder can be anchored by placing the thumb on the cranial pole of the bladder and using the rest of the fingers to gently lift the bladder towards you (Figure 1b).

After the bladder has been fixed, the cap must be removed from the needle and the needle is gently inserted through the skin into the bladder. When the needle passes slowly and smoothly through the skin, most cats feel little or no physical activity (flinch). The needle is fully immersed so that the cannula of the needle touches the skin.

The urine is aspirated with one hand, after which the pressure from the other hand must be relieved before the needle is removed. Complications after cystocentesis are very rare in healthy cats, but may include the appearance of hematomas and hemorrhages (usually minor, but this may affect the results of urinalysis), a temporary increase in vagus nerve tone (vomiting, shortness of breath, collapse), urine leakage into the abdominal cavity and ruptured bladder (rarely seen in cats with urethral obstruction).

If the bladder is not palpable, but there is a need for cystocentesis (for example, for bacteriological urine culture), then cystocentesis can be performed under ultrasound guidance to accurately detect the bladder and determine the direction of the needle. A sufficient amount of ultrasound gel is applied before ultrasound imaging and sampling. In this case, you must be extremely careful not to accidentally insert the needle through the gel or through the probe tip!

In dogs, cystocentesis can be performed with the animal standing or lying laterally. It is necessary to localize and fix the bladder. Bladder fixation can be difficult in very large or obese dogs. In such situations, it may be advisable to press with the palm of your hand on the abdominal wall opposite to the one from which the sample will be taken. Blind cystocentesis is not recommended; this method usually does not work and can cause damage to the abdominal organs. Gently shaking the bladder with abdominal palpation helps to obtain material that may have settled in the lower part of the bladder. It is recommended to use a 22 G needle, 1.5-3 cm long, depending on the size of the dog. The needle is inserted from the ventral side of the abdominal wall and is passed into the bladder in the caudoventral direction. The urine is then gently aspirated into a syringe. It is important not to apply excessive pressure to the bladder, as this can lead to urine leakage into the abdominal cavity.

As in the case of cats, if the bladder in dogs cannot be palpated or the doctor has any doubts about this procedure, an ultrasound-guided cystocentesis will make it easier to obtain a urine sample.

Collecting urine samples from the litter box

To obtain urine samples from the litter box, the cat must be using a litter box without litter, or with one of the non-absorbent litters (commercial brands include Katkor®, kit4cat®, Mikki®; non-commercial litter options include clean aquarium gravel or plastic balls). After the cat has urinated, a urine sample is collected with a pipette or syringe and placed in a sterile tube for later analysis (Figure 2).


Figure 2... Urine samples obtained from a litter box can be used for general clinical analysis. However, when examining bacteriuria or proteinuria, the test results may be unreliable.

Sample analysis should be carried out as soon as possible. The sample should be kept refrigerated if immediate analysis is not possible.

During urine collection in dogs during natural urination, the first portion of urine is not collected and only the middle portion can be used for analysis. Although manual bladder squeezing can induce urination in some cases, this technique can have somewhat negative effects on the patient and on the quality of the samples obtained, so the authors do not recommend using it.

Obtaining urine samples by catheterization

In cats, urine specimen collection using this method is used when catheterization is required for other diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, such as treating urethral obstruction or retrograde contrast enhancement. The catheterization procedure can cause injury or promote urinary tract infections.

Thus, catheterization should be avoided if it is not necessary, and when performing the procedure, use atraumatic material and follow the rules of asepsis. In most dogs, catheters with a diameter of 4-10 can be used for catheterization, but the doctor should try to use the catheter with the smallest diameter, which will facilitate the procedure.

Study of urine in a veterinary clinic

If possible, routine urine testing should be done on your own. When samples are sent to an external laboratory, analysis may be delayed and the results may end up being inaccurate.

Determination of the physical properties and specific gravity of urine
When examining a urine sample, it is necessary to determine its color, transparency, and the presence of sediment. The specific gravity of urine (USG) should be determined using a refractometer (Figure 3).


Figure 3... The specific gravity of urine should be measured with a refractometer, not with test strips.

Urine can be classified as isostenuria (USG = 1.007-1.012, equal to the glomerular filtrate - primary urine), hypostenuria (USG< 1,007) и гиперстенурия (USG > 1,012).

Urine test strips are unreliable for USG, nitrite, urobilinogen, and leukocyte counts in cats and dogs.

A urine sample (5 ml) can be centrifuged, and the resulting sediment can be stained and examined using light microscopy.

Normal results are summarized in Table 2.

table 2... Clinical urine analysis and interpretation of results:

Index

Reference values

A comment

Specific gravity of urine (USG)

1,040-1,060 (cats),

1,015-1,045 (dogs)

Always measure with a refractometer, not using test strips! A decrease in the specific gravity of urine can be due to physiological (when consuming liquid food), iatrogenic (for example, the introduction of furosemide) or pathological reasons (for example, in chronic kidney disease).

An increase in USG can occur with severe forms of glucosuria and proteinuria, as well as after administration of a radiopaque contrast agent.

Test strips

Glucose:
negatively

A positive reaction to glucose on test strips indicates glucosuria, which can result from stress, diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia, due to intravenous administration of glucose-containing fluid or, less often, functional disorders of the renal tubules.

Ketone bodies: negative

Some diabetic cats may have a positive reaction. Sometimes ketones can be found in cats without diabetes mellitus (non-diabetic ketonuria) when catabolic processes prevail in the body.

Blood: negative

Urine strips are sensitive to small amounts of red blood cells, hemoglobin and myoglobin in the urine - anything that can impart red coloration to urine and test positive for blood on the test strip.

Urine pH can be affected by dietary composition, stress (hyperventilation), acid-base imbalances, medications, renal tubular acidosis, and urinary tract infections. PH results should be interpreted with caution; mildly acidic urine on the test strip may change the pH value to mildly alkaline. If accurate pH specifications are critical, then the physician should consider using a pH meter or sending a urine sample to an external laboratory.

negative / traces / 1 + (for cats and dogs)

Test strips are relatively insensitive for detecting proteinuria and do not include urine concentration. Therefore, the results should be interpreted in terms of the USG values ​​(measured with a refractometer, not with a test strip!). Determination of the protein-to-creatinine ratio (PCR) is recommended for all patients diagnosed with kidney disease, or when urine protein determination is required.

Bilirubin: negative

Unlike dogs, cats normally do not have bilirubin in their urine. Traces of bilirubin (1+ or 2+ [in highly concentrated urine]) may be normal, especially in males.

Urine sediment

Normal urine contains:

Less than 10 red blood cells per
field of view, under large
microscope magnification
(x400)

Less than 5 leukocytes per
field of view, under large
microscope magnification
(x400)

Epithelial cells
(more in
sample collected at
free urination
nii than when taking cyst
centesis)

+/- Struvite crystals
(see comment)

According to the method of obtaining a urine sample (collected from a litter box or cystocentesis method):

The presence, appearance and number of epithelial cells may vary.

Tumor cells from the bladder, urethra and
prostate gland.

Microorganisms should generally not be found in urine samples, but may be present if the samples were obtained from a litter box or during free urination of the animal.

Normally, struvite crystals may be present in the urine of cats. After sample collection, there is often an increase in crystalluria due to additional precipitation, mainly as a result of a decrease in sample temperature (and a change in pH). When evaluating crystalluria, it is important to consider the type of crystals and their amount. Urate crystals can be found in cats with hepatopathies (for example, when the animal has a portosystemic shunt), and oxalate crystals are found in cats with hypercalcemia. It is important that crystalluria is not misdiagnosed as crystalluria is a normal (side) event in many cases of idiopathic lower urinary tract disease.

Protein / creatinine ratio (SBR)

Most healthy cats and dogs have SBR< 0,2, хотя обычно приводится верхний предел 0,4-0,5

Values ​​for Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Cats: Dogs:

< 0,2 - нет протеинурии < 0,2 - нет протеинурии

0.2-0.4 - slight protein; 0.2-0.5 - slight proteinuria (borderline-
rya (borderline value) value)

> 0.4 - proteinuria> 0.5 - proteinuria

    General clinical examination of urine includes the determination of physical properties, chemical composition and microscopic examination of the sediment.

    Physical properties.

    NUMBER.

    Fine the average daily amount of urine is 20-50 ml per kg of body weight for dogs and 20-30 mg per kg of body weight for cats.

    Increased daily urine output - polyuria.
    Causes:
    1. Convergence of edema;
    2. Diabetes maleus (together with positive urinary glucose and high urine specific gravity);
    3. Glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, pyelonephritis (together with negative glucose levels, high urine specific gravity and severe proteinuria);
    4. Cushing's syndrome, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, tumors, uterine disease (pyometra), hyperthyroidism, liver disease (together with negative glucose levels, high urine specific gravity and negative or mild proteinuria)
    5. Chronic renal failure or diuresis after acute renal failure (together with a low specific gravity of urine and an increased level of urea in the blood);
    6. Diabetes insipidus (together with a low specific gravity of urine, which does not change during a test with deprivation of fluid and a normal level of urea in the blood);
    7. Psychogenic craving for drinking (together with a low specific gravity of urine, which increases with a test with deprivation of fluid and a normal level of urea in the blood)
    Often causes polydipsia.

    Decrease in daily urine output - oliguria.
    Causes:
    1. Profuse diarrhea;
    2. Vomiting;
    3. Increase in edema (regardless of their origin);
    4. Too little fluid intake;

    Lack of urine or too little urine (no urination or urination) - anuria.
    Causes:
    a) Prerenal anuria (arising from extrarenal causes):
    1. Severe blood loss (hypovolemia - hypovolemic shock);
    2. Acute heart failure (cardiogenic shock);
    3. Acute vascular insufficiency (vascular shock);
    4. Indomitable vomiting;
    5. Severe diarrhea.
    b) Renal (secretory) anuria (associated with pathological processes in the kidneys):
    1. Sharp jades;
    2. Necronephrosis;
    3. Transfusion of incompatible blood;
    4. Severe chronic kidney disease.
    c) Obstructive (excretory) anuria (impossibility of urination):
    1. Blockage of the ureters with stones;
    2. Compression of the ureters by tumors developing near the ureters (neoplasms of the uterus, ovaries, bladder, metastases from other organs.

    COLOUR

    Normal urine color is straw-yellow.
    Color change may be due to the release of coloring compounds formed during organic changes or under the influence of food, drugs or contrast agents.

    Red or red-brown color (the color of meat slops)
    Causes:
    1. Macrohematuria;
    2. Hemoglobinuria;
    3. The presence of myoglobin in the urine;
    4. The presence of porphyrin in the urine;
    5. The presence of certain drugs or their metabolites in the urine.

    Dark yellow color (can be greenish or greenish-brown, the color of dark beer)
    Causes:
    1. Excretion of bilirubin in the urine (with parenchymal or obstructive jaundice).

    Greenish yellow color
    Causes:
    1. High content of pus in urine.

    Dirty brown or gray
    Causes:
    1. Pyuria with an alkaline reaction of urine.

    Very dark, almost black color
    Causes:
    1. Hemoglobinuria in acute hemolytic anemia.

    Whitish color
    Causes:
    1. Phosphaturia (the presence of a large amount of phosphates in the urine).
    It should be borne in mind that with prolonged standing of urine, its color may change. As a rule, it becomes more intense. In the case of formation of urobilin from colorless urobilinogen under the influence of light, the urine becomes dark yellow (to orange). In the case of methemoglobin formation, the urine becomes dark brown. In addition, the change in odor can be associated with the use of certain drugs, feed or feed additives.

    TRANSPARENCY

    Normal urine is clear.

    Cloudy urine can be caused by:
    1. The presence of erythrocytes in the urine;
    2. The presence of leukocytes in the urine;
    3. The presence of epithelial cells in the urine;
    4. The presence of bacteria in the urine (bacteria);
    5. The presence of fatty drops in the urine;
    6. The presence of mucus in the urine;
    7. Precipitation of salts.

    In addition, the clarity of urine depends on:
    1. Concentration of salts;
    2. pH;
    3. Storage temperatures (low temperature promotes the precipitation of salts);
    4. Duration of storage (salts fall out during long-term storage).

    SMELL

    Normally, the urine of dogs and cats has a mild, specific odor.

    Odor changes can be caused by:
    1. Acetonuria (the appearance of the smell of acetone in diabetes mellitus);
    2. Bacterial infections (ammonia, unpleasant odor);
    3. Taking antibiotics or food additives (special specific smell).

    DENSITY

    Normal urine density in dogs 1.015-1.034 (minimum - 1.001, maximum 1.065), in cats - 1.020-1.040.
    Density is a measure of the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine.

    What matters
    1. The state of hydration of the animal;
    2. Drinking and eating habits;
    3. Ambient temperature;
    4. Injected drugs;
    5. The functional state or the number of renal tubules.

    Reasons for increased urine density:
    1. Glucose in the urine;
    2. Protein in urine (in large quantities);
    3. Medicines (or their metabolites) in the urine;
    4. Mannitol or dextran in urine (as a result of intravenous infusion).

    Reasons for a decrease in urine density:
    1. Diabetes mellitus;
    3. Acute kidney damage.

    You can talk about adequate renal response, when, after a short abstinence from drinking water, the specific gravity of urine rises to the average figures of the norm. An inadequate reaction of the kidneys is considered if the specific gravity does not rise above the minimum values ​​with abstinence from drinking water - isostenuria (greatly reduced ability to adapt).
    Causes:
    1. Chronic renal failure.

    Chemical research.

    NS

    Normal urine pH dogs and cats can be both slightly acidic and slightly alkaline, depending on the protein content in the diet. On average, urine pH ranges from 5-7.5 and is more often slightly acidic.

    Increase in urine pH (pH> 7.5) - urine alkalization.
    Causes:
    1. Consumption of plant foods;
    2. Profuse sour vomiting;
    3. Hyperkalemia;
    4. Resorption of edema;
    5. Primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism (accompanied by hypercalcemia);
    6. Metabolic or respiratory alkalosis;
    7. Bacterial cystitis;
    8. Introduction of sodium bicarbonate.

    Decrease in urine pH (pH around 5 and below) - acidification of urine.
    Causes:
    1. Metabolic or respiratory acidosis;
    2. Hypokalemia;
    3. Dehydration;
    4. Fever;
    5. Fasting;
    6. Prolonged muscular load;
    7. Diabetes mellitus;
    8. Chronic renal failure;
    9. Introduction of acidic salts (for example, ammonium chloride).

    PROTEIN

    Normal protein in urine is absent or its concentration is less than 100 mg / l.
    Proteinuria- the appearance of protein in the urine.

    Physiological proteinuria- cases of temporary appearance of protein in the urine, not associated with diseases.
    Causes:
    1. Reception of a large amount of feed with a high protein content;
    2. Strong physical activity;
    3. Epileptic seizures.

    Pathological proteinuria there is renal and extrarenal.

    Extrarenal proteinuria can be extrarenal and postrenal.

    Extrarenal extrarenal protenuria more often a temporary mild degree (300 mg / l).
    Causes:
    1. Heart failure;
    2. Diabetes mellitus;
    3. Elevated temperature;
    4. Anemia;
    5. Hypothermia;
    6. Allergy;
    7. The use of penicillin, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides;
    8. Burns;
    9. Dehydration;
    10. Hemoglobinuria;
    11. Myoglobinuria.
    Severity of proteinuria is not a reliable indicator of the severity of the underlying disease and its prognosis.

    Extrarenal postrenal proteinuria(false proteinuria, accidental proteinuria) rarely exceeds 1 g / l (except in cases of severe pyuria) and is accompanied by the formation of a large sediment.
    Causes:
    1. Cystitis;
    2. Pyelitis;
    3. Prostatitis;
    4. Urethritis;
    5. Vulvovaginitis.
    6. Bleeding in the urinary tract.

    Renal proteinuria occurs when protein enters the urine in the kidney parenchyma. In most cases, it is associated with increased permeability of the kidney filter. At the same time, a high content of protein in the urine is found (more than 1 g / l). Microscopic examination of urine sediment reveals cylinders.
    Causes:
    1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
    2. Acute and chronic pyelonephritis;
    3. Severe chronic heart failure;
    4. Amyloidosis of the kidneys;
    5. Kidney neoplasms;
    6. Hydronephrosis of the kidneys;
    7. Lipoid nephrosis;
    8. Nephrotic syndrome;
    9. Immune diseases with damage to renal glomeruli by immune complexes;
    10. Severe anemia.

    Renal microalbuminuria- the presence of protein in urine at concentrations below the sensitivity of the reagent strips (from 1 to 30 mg / 100 ml). It is an early sensitive indicator of various chronic kidney diseases.

    Paraproteinuria- the appearance in the urine of a protein-globulin that does not have the properties of antibodies (Bens-Jones protein), consisting of light chains of immunoglobulins that easily pass through glomerular filters. This protein is secreted in plasmacytoma. Paraproteinuria develops without primary damage to the renal glomeruli.

    Tubular proteinuria- the appearance in the urine of small proteins (α1-microglobulin, β2-microglobulin, lysozyme, retinol-binding protein). They are normally present in the glomerular filtrate, but are reabsorbed in the renal tubules. When the epithelium of the renal tubules is damaged, these proteins appear in the urine (determined only by electrophoresis). Tubular proteinuria is an early indicator of renal tubular damage in the absence of concomitant changes in circulating urea and creatinine levels.
    Causes:
    1. Medicines (aminoglycosides, cyclosporine);
    2. Heavy metals (lead);
    3. Analgesics (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory substances);
    4. Ischemia;
    5. Metabolic diseases (Fanconi-like syndrome).

    False positive protein counts obtained with the test strip are typical for alkaline urine (pH 8).

    False negative protein counts, obtained using the test strip, are associated with the fact that the test strips show, first of all, the level of albumin (paraproteinuria and tubular proteinuria are not detected) and their content in urine is higher than 30 mg \ 100 ml (microalbuminuria is not detected).
    Proteinuria assessment should be carried out taking into account clinical symptoms (fluid accumulation, edema) and other laboratory parameters (blood protein level, albumin to globulin ratio, urea, creatinine, serum lipids, cholesterol level).

    GLUCOSE

    Normally, there is no glucose in the urine.

    Glucosuria- the presence of glucose in the urine.

    1. Glucosuria with a high specific gravity of urine(1,030) and an increased blood glucose level (3.3 - 5 mmol / l) - a criterion for diabetes mellitus (Diadetes mellitus).
    It should be borne in mind that animals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) can significantly change the renal glucose threshold (the concentration of glucose in the blood, above which glucose begins to flow into the urine). Sometimes, with persistent normoglycemia, glucosuria persists (the renal glucose threshold is lowered). And with the development of glomerulosclerosis, the renal glucose threshold increases, and glucosuria may not be present even with severe hyperglycemia.

    2.Renal glucosuria- is recorded with an average specific gravity of urine and a normal blood glucose level. A marker of tubular dysfunction is impairment of reabsorption.
    Causes:
    1. Primary renal glucosuria in some dog breeds (Scottish Terriers, Norwegian Elkhounds, mixed breed dogs);
    2. A component of general renal tubular dysfunction - Fanconi-like syndrome (maybe hereditary and acquired; glucose, amino acids, small globulins, phosphate and bicarbonate are excreted in the urine; described in Besenjs, Norwegian Elkhounds, Shetland Sheepdogs, Miniature Schnauchers);
    3. The use of some nephrotoxic drugs.
    4. Acute renal failure or toxicity of aminoglycosides - if the level of urea in the blood is increased.

    3. Glucosuria with reduced specific gravity of urine(1.015 - 1.018) can be with the introduction of glucose.
    4. Moderate glucosuria occurs in healthy animals with a significant nutritional load with feeds with a high carbohydrate content.

    False positive result when determining glucose in urine with test strips, it is possible in cats with cystitis.

    False negative result when determining glucose in urine with test strips, it is possible in dogs in the presence of ascorbic acid (it is synthesized in dogs in various quantities).

    BILIRUBIN

    Normally, there is no bilirubin in the urine of cats. Concentrated dog urine may contain trace amounts of bilirubin.

    Bilirubinuria- the appearance of bilirubin (direct) in the urine.
    Causes:
    1. Parenchymal jaundice (damage to the liver parenchyma);
    2. Obstructive jaundice (violation of the outflow of bile).

    It is used as an express method for the differential diagnosis of hemolytic jaundice - bilirubinuria is not typical for them, since indirect bilirubin does not pass through the renal filter.

    UROBILINOGEN

    Urobilinogen upper limit of norm in urine about 10 mg / l.

    Urobilinogenuria- an increase in the level of urobilinogen in the urine.
    Causes:
    1. Increase in hemoglobin catabolism: hemolytic anemia, intravascular hemolysis (transfusion of incompatible blood, infections, sepsis), pernicious anemia, polycythemia, resorption of massive hematomas;
    2. Increased formation of urobilinogen in the gastrointestinal tract: enterocolitis, ileitis;
    3. Increased formation and reabsorption of urobilinogen in inflammation of the biliary system - cholangitis;
    4. Dysfunction of the liver: chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver, toxic liver damage (poisoning with organic compounds, toxins in infectious diseases and sepsis); secondary liver failure (heart and circulatory failure, liver tumors);
    5. Liver bypass surgery: liver cirrhosis with portal hypertension, thrombosis, renal vein obstruction.

    Of particular diagnostic value is:
    1. With lesions of the liver parenchyma in cases without jaundice;
    2. For differential diagnosis of parenchymal jaundice from obstructive jaundice, in which there is no urobilinogenuria.

    KETONE BODIES

    Normally, there are no ketone bodies in the urine.

    Ketonuria- the appearance of ketone bodies in the urine (as a result of the accelerated incomplete oxidation of fatty acids as an energy source).
    Causes:
    1. Severe decompensation of type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) and long-term type II diabetes (non-insulin dependent) with depletion of pancreatic beta cells and the development of absolute insulin deficiency.
    2. Severe - hyperketonemic diabetic coma;
    3. Precomatous states;
    4. Cerebral coma;
    5. Prolonged fasting;
    6. Severe fever;
    7. Hyperinsulinism;
    8. Hypercatecholemia;
    9. Postoperative period.

    NITRITES

    Normally, there are no nitrites in the urine.

    The appearance of nitrites in the urine     indicates an infection of the urinary tract, since many pathogenic bacteria reduce the nitrates present in the urine to nitrites.
    Of particular diagnostic value is when determining asymptomatic urinary tract infections (at risk - animals with prostate neoplasms, patients with diabetes mellitus, after urological operations or instrumental procedures on the urinary tract).

    Erythrocytes

    Normally, there are no red blood cells in the urine. or physiological microhematuria is allowed when examining with test strips up to 3 erythrocytes / μl of urine.

    Hematuria- the content of red blood cells in the urine in an amount of more than 5 in 1 μl of urine.

    Macrohematuria- installed with the naked eye.

    Microhematuria- detected only with test strips or microscopy. Often due to cystocentesis or catheterization.

    Hematuria originating from the bladder and urethra.
    In about 75% of cases of gross hematuria, it is often combined with dysuria and pain on palpation.
    Causes:
    1. Stones in the bladder and urethra;
    2. Infectious or drug-induced (cyclophosphamide) cystitis;
    3. Urethritis;
    4. Tumors of the bladder;
    5. Injuries to the bladder and urethra (crushing, rupture).
    An admixture of blood only at the beginning of urination indicates bleeding between the neck of the bladder and the opening of the urethra.
    An admixture of blood, mainly at the end of urination, indicates bleeding in the bladder.

    Hematuria originating from the kidneys (approximately 25% of hematuria cases).
    Uniform hematuria from beginning to end of urination. Microscopic examination of the sediment in this case reveals erythrocyte casts. Such bleeding is relatively rare, associated with proteinuria, and less intense than bleeding in the urinary tract.
    Causes:
    1. Physical overload;
    2. Infectious diseases (leptospirosis, septicemia);
    3. Hemorrhagic diathesis of various etiologies;
    4. Coagulopathy (dicumarol poisoning);
    5. Consumption coagulopathy (DIC syndrome);
    6. Kidney injury;
    7. Thrombosis of the vessels of the kidneys;
    8. Kidney neoplasms;
    9. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
    10. Pyelitis, pyelonephritis;
    11. Glomerulo- and tubulonephrosis (poisoning, taking medications);
    12. Severe venous congestion;
    13. Displacement of the spleen;
    14. Systemic lupus erythematosus;
    15. Overdose of anticoagulants, sulfonamides, urotropin.
    16. Idiopathic renal hematuria.
    Bleeding occurring independently of urination, localized in the urethra, prepuce, vagina, uterus (estrus) or prostate gland.

    HEMOGLOBIN, MYOGLOBIN

    Normally, when tested with test strips, it is absent.

    Myoglobinuria reasons:
    1. Muscle damage (in the circulating blood, the level of creatine kinase rises).
    Hemoglobinuria is always accompanied by hemoglobinemia. If hemolyzed red blood cells are found in the urinary sediment, then the cause is hematuria.

    Microscopic examination of the sediment.

    There are elements of organized and unorganized urine sediment. The main elements of the organized sediment are erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelium and casts; unorganized - crystalline and amorphous salts.

    EPITHELIUM

    Fine in the urine sediment, single cells of the flat (urethra) and transitional epithelium (pelvis, ureters, bladder) are found in the field of view. The renal epithelium (tubules) is normally absent.

    Squamous epithelial cells. Normally, in females, it is found in greater numbers. The detection of layers of squamous epithelium and stratum corneum in the sediment is a sign of squamous metaplasia of the urinary tract mucosa.

    Transitional epithelial cells.
    The reasons for the significant increase in their number:
    1. Acute inflammatory processes in the bladder and renal pelvis;
    2. Intoxication;
    3. Urolithiasis;
    4. Neoplasms of the urinary tract.

    Epithelial cells of the urinary tubules (renal epithelium).
    The reasons for their appearance:
    1. Jade;
    2. Intoxication;
    3. Insufficiency of blood circulation;
    4. Necrotic nephrosis (in case of poisoning with mercuric chloride, antifreeze, dichloroethane) - the epithelium in a very large amount;
    5. Amyloidosis of the kidneys (in the albumin stage is rare, in the edematous-hypertensive and azotemic stage - often);
    6. Lipoid nephrosis (desquamated renal epithelium is often found fatty degenerated).
    If conglomerates of epithelial cells are found, especially moderately or significantly varying in shape and / or size, further cytological examination is necessary to determine the possible malignancy of these cells.

    LEUKOCYTES

    Normally, leukocytes are absent or there may be single leukocytes per field of view (0-3 leukocytes per field of view at 400 magnification).

    Leukocyturia- more than 3 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope with a magnification of 400.
    Pyuria- over 60 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope with a magnification of 400.

    Infectious leukocyturia, often pyuria.
    Causes:
    1. Inflammatory processes in the bladder, urethra, renal pelvis.
    2. Infected discharge from the prostate gland, vagina, uterus.

    Aseptic leukocyturia.
    Causes:
    1. Glomerulonephritis;
    2. Amyloidosis;
    3. Chronic interstitial nephritis.

    Erythrocytes

    Normally, urine sediment is absent or single in the preparation (0-3 in the field of view with a magnification of 400).
    The appearance or increase in the number of red blood cells in the urine sediment is called hematuria.
    For reasons, see the section "Urine chemistry" above.

    CYLINDERS

    Fine in the urine sediment, hyaline and granular cylinders - single in the preparation - can be found with unchanged urine.
    Urinary cylinders not found in alkaline urine. Neither the number nor the type of urinary casts is indicative of the severity of the disease and is not specific to any kidney injury. The absence of casts in the urine sediment does not indicate the absence of kidney disease.

    Cylindruria- the presence in the urine of an increased number of cylinders of any type.

    Hyaline casts are made up of protein that has entered the urine due to congestion or inflammation.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Proteinuria not associated with kidney damage (albuminemia, venous congestion in the kidneys, great physical activity, cooling);
    2. Feverish conditions;
    3. Various organic kidney damage, both acute and chronic;
    4. Dehydration.
    There is no correlation between the severity of proteinuria and the number of hyaline casts, since the formation of casts depends on urine pH.

    Granular cylinders- consist of tubular epithelial cells.
    Reasons for education:
    1. The presence of pronounced degeneration in the epithelium of the tubules (necrosis of the epithelium of the tubules, inflammation of the kidneys).
    Waxy cylinders.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Severe lesions of the renal parenchyma (both acute and chronic).

    Erythrocyte casts are formed from accumulations of red blood cells. Their presence in the urine sediment indicates the renal origin of hematuria.
    Causes:
    1. Inflammatory kidney disease;
    2. Bleeding into the renal parenchyma;
    3. Kidney infarction.

    Leukocyte casts- are quite rare.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Pyelonephritis.

    SALTS AND OTHER ELEMENTS


    The precipitation of salts depends on the properties of urine, in particular on its pH.

    In acidic urine precipitate:
    1. Uric acid
    2. Uric acid salts;
    3. Calcium phosphate;
    4. Calcium sulfate.

    In the urine, which gives the main (alkaline) reaction, precipitate:
    1. Amorphous phosphates;
    2. Triple phosphates;
    3. Neutral magnesium phosphate;
    4. Calcium carbonate;
    5. Crystals of sulfonamides.

    Crystalluria- the appearance of crystals in the urinary sediment.

    Uric acid.
    Fine crystals of uric acid are absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Pathologically acidic urine pH in renal failure (early sedimentation - within an hour after urination);
    2. Fever;
    3. Conditions accompanied by increased tissue decay (leukemia, massive disintegrating tumors, pneumonia in the stage of resolution);
    4. Heavy physical activity;
    5. Uric acid diathesis;
    6. Feeding exclusively with meat feed.

    Amorphous urates- uric acid salts give the urine sediment a brick-pink color.
    Fine- single in the field of view.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
    2. Chronic renal failure;
    3. "Congestive kidney";
    4. Fever.

    Oxalates- oxalic acid salts, mainly calcium oxalate.
    Fine oxalates are single in the field of view.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Pyelonephritis;
    2. Diabetes mellitus;
    3. Violation of calcium metabolism;
    4. After epileptic seizures;
    5. Poisoning with ethylene glycol (antifreeze).

    Triple phosphates, neutral phosphates, calcium carbonate.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Cystitis;
    2. Abundant intake of vegetable feed;
    3. Vomiting.
    May cause the development of calculi.

    Acid ammonium urate.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Cystitis with ammoniacal fermentation in the bladder;
    2. Uric acid renal infarction in newborns.
    3. Lack of liver function, especially with congenital portosystemic shunts;
    4. In Dalmatian Great Danes in the absence of pathology.

    Cystine crystals.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance: cytinosis (congenital disorder of amino acid metabolism).

    Crystals of leucine, tyrosine.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Acute yellow atrophy of the liver;
    2. Leukemia;
    3. Poisoning with phosphorus.

    Cholesterol crystals.
    Fine absent.

    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Amyloid and lipoid dystrophy of the kidneys;
    2. Kidney neoplasms;
    3. Kidney abscess.

    Fatty acid.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance (are very rare):
    1. Fatty degeneration of the kidneys;
    2. Disintegration of the epithelium of the renal tubules.

    Hemosiderin- a breakdown product of hemoglobin.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance - hemolytic anemia with intravascular hemolysis of erythrocytes.

    Hematoidin- a breakdown product of hemoglobin that does not contain iron.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Calculous (associated with the formation of stones) pyelitis;
    2. Kidney abscess;
    3. Neoplasms of the bladder and kidneys.

    BACTERIA

    Normally bacteria are absent or determined in urine obtained during spontaneous urination or with the help of a catheter, in an amount of not more than 2x103 bact. / ml of urine.

    The quantity of bacteria in the urine is of decisive importance.
     100,000 (1x105) and more microbial bodies per ml of urine is an indirect sign of inflammation in the urinary organs.
     1000 - 10000 (1x103 - 1x104) microbial bodies per ml of urine - cause suspicion of inflammatory processes in the urinary tract. In females, this amount may be normal.
     less than 1000 microbial bodies per ml of urine is regarded as the result of secondary contamination.

    In urine obtained by cystocentesis, bacteria should not normally be present at all.
    In the study of the general analysis of urine, only the fact of bacteriuria is ascertained. In the native preparation, 1 bacterium in the oil immersion field of view corresponds to 10,000 (1x104) bact. / Ml, but bacteriological research is necessary to accurately determine the quantitative characteristics.
    The presence of an infection of the urinary tract can be signaled at the same time detected bacteriuria, hematuria and pyuria.

    YEAST MUSHROOMS

    Normally absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Glucosuria;
    2. Antibiotic therapy;
    3. Long-term storage of urine.