Dark urine in dogs: causes of color changes. Deciphering the dog's tests
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If your animal gets sick, you first need to contact a veterinarian. Remember, it is impossible to make a correct diagnosis and cure an animal solely using the Internet. Any amateur activity on the part of the animal owner can cause irreparable harm to the health of the animal!
Indicators of blood and urine tests in dogs (with explanations)
Blood and urine tests
Normal hematological parameters in dogs
Index | Unit | Adults | Puppies |
Hemoglobin | |||
Red blood cells | |||
Hematocrit | |||
Leukocytes | |||
Band neutrophils | |||
Segmented neutrophils | |||
Eosinophils | |||
Basophils | |||
Lymphocytes | |||
Monocytes | |||
Myelocytes | |||
Reticulocytes | |||
Red blood cell diameter | |||
Platelets |
Possible causes of deviations from normal hematological parameters.
Hemoglobin. Increase: some forms of hemoblastosis, in particular erythremia, dehydration. Decreased (anemia): various types of anemia, incl. due to blood loss.
Red blood cells. Increased: erythremia, heart failure, chronic lung diseases, dehydration. Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic and due to blood loss.
Hematocrit Increased: erythremia, cardiac and pulmonary failure, dehydration. Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic.
ESR. Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, infections, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies, blood loss, injuries, surgical interventions.
Leukocytes. Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, viral infections, invasions, blood loss, injuries, allergic reactions, tumors, myeloid leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia. Decreased: acute and chronic infections (rare), liver diseases, autoimmune diseases, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.
Neutrophils. Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, shock, blood loss, hemolytic anemia. Decreased: viral infections, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis. An increase in the number of band neutrophils, the appearance of myelocytes: sepsis, malignant tumors, myeloid leukemia.
Eosinophils. Increased: allergic reactions, sensitization, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies.
Basophils. Increase: hemoblastosis.
Lymphocytes. Increased: infections, neutropenia (relative increase), lymphocytic leukemia.
Monocytes. Increased: chronic infections, tumors, chronic monocytic leukemia.
Myelocytes. Detection: chronic myeloid leukemia, acute and chronic inflammatory processes, sepsis, bleeding, shock.
Reticulocytes. Increase: blood loss, hemolytic anemia Decrease: hypoplastic anemia.
Red blood cell diameter. Increased: B12 and folate deficiency anemia, liver disease. Decreased: iron deficiency and hemolytic anemia.
Platelets. Increased: myeloproliferative diseases. Decreased: acute and chronic leukemia, liver cirrhosis, aplastic anemia, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenic purpura, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, allergies, intoxication, chronic infections.
Normal urine values
| Index | Units | Norm |
| Quantity | ml/kg/day | 24-41 |
| Color | yellow | |
| Transparency | transparent | |
| Density | g/ml | 1.015-1.050 |
| Protein | mg/l | 0-30 |
| Glucose | 0 | |
| Ketone bodies | 0 | |
| Creatinine | g/l | 1-3 |
| Amylase | units Somogy | 50-150 |
| Bilirubin | footprints | |
| Urobilinogen | footprints | |
| pH | units | 5.0-7.0 |
| Hemoglobin | 0 | |
| Red blood cells | 0-units | |
| Leukocytes | 0-units | |
| Cylinders | 0-units |
Possible causes of deviations from normal urine values
Color. Normally, urine is yellow in color. A decrease or disappearance of the yellow color indicates a decrease in the concentration of urine as a result of increased excretion of water (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates increased urine concentration, for example due to dehydration (oliguria). Urine acquires a green color as a result of the release of bilirubin. The color of urine changes after taking certain vitamins.
Transparency. Normal urine is clear. Cloudy urine occurs when bacteria, white blood cells, red blood cells, epithelial cells, salts, fat and mucus are secreted. Turbidity that disappears when urine is heated in a test tube is probably caused by urate. If the turbidity does not disappear after heating, then add a few drops of acetic acid to the test tube. The disappearance of turbidity indicates the presence of phosphates. If the cloudiness disappears after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, this may indicate the presence of calcium oxalate. The turbidity caused by droplets of fat disappears after shaking the urine with a mixture of alcohol and ether.
Density. Increased: oliguria, glucosuria, proteinuria. Decreased: polyuria.
Protein. Increase: kidney disease, hemolysis, meat diet, cystitis.
Glucose. Detection: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, kidney disease, administration of glucocorticoids, cystitis.
Ketone bodies(acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacetic acid). Detection: Diabetic ketonuria, fever, fasting, low carbohydrate diet.
Creatinine. Decreased: renal failure.
Amylase. Increased: acute pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, hepatitis.
Bilirubin. Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis (autoimmune hemolytic anemia, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis), liver disease, impaired flow of bile into the intestines, fever, fasting.
Urobilinogen. Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis, liver disease, increased activity of intestinal microflora. Absence: impaired flow of bile into the intestines.
pH. Normally, dog urine has a slightly acidic or neutral reaction. Urine alkalinity may indicate a plant-based diet, alkaline medications, chronic urinary tract infection, metabolic and respiratory alkalosis. The acidity of urine increases with a meat diet, increased breakdown of proteins, administration of acidic drugs, metabolic and respiratory acidosis.
Hemoglobin. Detection (hemoglobinuria): autoimmune hemolytic anemia, sepsis, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, poisoning with hemolytic poisons (phenothiazine, methylene blue, copper and lead preparations), infusion of incompatible blood. Hemoglobinuria is distinguished from hematuria by microscopy of urine sediment. With hematuria, a large number of red blood cells are found in the urine sediment. False hemoglobinuria can occur with hemolysis of red blood cells in weakly concentrated and old urine.
Red blood cells. Detection in significant quantities (hematuria): pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, hemorrhagic diathesis, thrombocytopenia, anticoagulant poisoning, kidney infarction, inflammatory diseases, injuries and tumors of the genitourinary organs, urolithiasis, dioctophimosis.
Leukocytes. Detection in significant quantities: inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract.
Cylinders. Detection in significant quantities: damage to the renal parenchyma, proteinuria (hyaline casts), hematuria (erythrocyte casts), hemoglobinuria (pigment casts), pyelonephritis (leukocyte casts).
Normal blood biochemical parameters
| Index | An object | Units | Values |
| Glucose | serum | g/l | 0.6-1.2 |
| Total protein | serum | g/l | 54-78 |
| Albumin | serum | g/l | 23-34 |
| Globulins | serum | g/l | 27-44 |
| pH | blood | units | 7.31-7.42 |
| Lipids | plasma | g/l | 0.47-07.25 |
| Cholesterol | serum | g/l | 1.25-2.50 |
| Creatinine | serum | mg/l | 10-22 |
| Urea nitrogen | serum | mg/l | 100-200 |
| Total bilirubin | serum | mg/l | 0.7-6.1 |
| Direct bilirubin | serum | mg/l | 0-1.4 |
| Bilirubin indirect | serum | mg/l | 0.7-6.1 |
| Amylase | serum | units Somogy | < 800 |
| Calcium | serum | mg/l | 70-116 |
| Phosphorus, inorganic | serum | mg/l | 25-63 |
| Magnesium | serum | mg/l | 18-24 |
| Iron | serum | mg/l | 0.94-1.22 |
Possible causes of deviations from normal biochemical parameters.
Glucose. Increased: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, administration of glucocorticoids, stress, pancreatic necrosis. Decreased: insulinoma, insulin overdose, hypoadrenocorticism.
Total protein. Increased: chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, paraproteinemic hemoblastosis, dehydration. Decreased: nephrotic syndrome, enteritis, pancreatitis, burns, blood loss, fasting, hypovitaminosis, heart failure, edema, malignant neoplasms.
Albumins: see Total Protein.
Globulins. Increased: acute and chronic inflammatory processes, malignant neoplasms, autoimmune diseases, trauma, myocardial infarction. Decreased: malignant neoplasms, chronic inflammatory processes, allergies.
pH. Not only the pH of the blood matters, but also the alkaline reserve. An increase in blood pH and an increase in alkaline reserve indicate alkalemia and metabolic alkalosis, for example, due to loss of chlorides through vomiting and diarrhea. Hyperventilation of the lungs, due to the accelerated elimination of CO2, causes respiratory alkalosis. A decrease in blood pH and a decrease in alkaline reserve indicate acidemia and metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis can occur due to diarrhea, renal failure, accumulation of ketone bodies (acetonemia), administration of certain medications (calcium chloride, methionine, salicylates), and the formation of excess lactic acid during heavy and prolonged physical activity. Respiratory acidosis is caused by hypoventilation of the lungs due to an increase in CO2 concentration in the blood.
Lipids. Increased: hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, hypopreinemia as a result of renal failure and gastrointestinal diseases, administration of glucocorticoids, liver disease, high-lipid diet.
Cholesterol. See Lipids.
Creatinine. Increased: renal dysfunction.
Urea nitrogen. Increased: impaired renal function, impaired urine excretion, digestion and absorption of large amounts of protein in the intestines, fever, dehydration, acute liver dystrophy. Decreased: liver cirrhosis.
Direct bilirubin(passed through the liver). Increased: hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, liver tumors, liver dystrophy.
Bilirubin indirect(not passed through the liver, unbound). Increased: hemolysis, B12 hypovitaminosis.
Amylase. Increased: pancreatitis, renal failure, hyperadrenocorticism.
Calcium. Increased: hyperparathyroidism, increased calcium intake, hypoadrenocorticism, thyroid dysfunction, renal failure, tumors, periostitis, overdose of vitamin D and some diuretics. Decreased: hypoparathyroidism, azotemia
The composition of urine fairly fully reflects the metabolic processes occurring in the animal’s body. Laboratory analysis allows us to identify serious deviations in health status, recognize diseases of the genitourinary system, and determine the presence of infections or injuries.
A general urine test with microscopic examination of sediment is prescribed for many diseases of cats and dogs, being informative and quite simple to perform.
Sometimes collecting animal waste for testing can be difficult: cats often go into litter trays, and dogs are walked outside. In such cases, the material can be collected in the clinic during the appointment. To do this, catheterization of the bladder is used, or urine is collected using cystocentesis (puncture of the bladder with a needle through the abdominal cavity). The latter method is considered the most informative and high-quality way to collect material for analysis.
Interpretation of urine test results
The results of physical, chemical and microscopic studies are summarized in a table. Deciphering them makes it possible to get a general picture of the state of the animal’s body. Based on them, data from other tests and examinations, an experienced specialist makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment.
Physical properties of urine
They are examined by organoleptic analysis. Its essence lies in the assessment of visual characteristics: color, smell, consistency, presence of visible impurities.
The following indicators are noted:
COL (color)- A yellow and light yellow tint of the liquid is considered normal.
CLA (transparency)- in healthy animals the discharge is completely transparent.
Presence of sediment- may be present in small quantities.
It is formed from insoluble salts, crystals, epithelial cells (kidneys, urethra, bladder, external genitalia), organic compounds, and microorganisms. A large amount of sediment is observed in cases of metabolic disorders and diseases.
Additionally, the presence of an uncharacteristic odor and a change in consistency may be noted.
The owner of the animal should pay attention to the nature of urination and the appearance of the discharge. If there is a change in color or smell, clots of mucus or pus, or blood particles appear when urinating, you should take your dog or cat to the veterinarian.
Chemical properties of urine
Examined using an analyzer. This method analyzes the composition of the isolated liquid for the presence and quantity of organic and chemical substances.
BIL (bilirubin)- Normally, dogs contain this substance in small, undetectable quantities. In cats, this component is not present in its normal composition.
Dogs - missing (traces).
Cats - absent.
An increase in the indicator (bilirubinuria) may indicate liver disease, obstruction of the bile ducts, and disruption of hemolytic processes.
URO (urea)- formed as a result of the breakdown of proteins.
Dogs - 3.5-9.2 mmol/l.
Cats - 5.4-12.1 mmol/l.
An increase in the indicator is evidence of renal failure, protein nutrition, acute hemolytic anemia.
KET (ketone bodies)- are not excreted in a healthy body.
The presence of ketones is the result of metabolic disorders arising from diabetes mellitus, exhaustion, sometimes as a manifestation of acute pancreatitis or extensive mechanical damage.
PRO (protein)- an increase in the amount of protein compounds accompanies most kidney diseases.
Dogs - 0.3 g/l.
Cats - 0.2 g/l.
An increase in protein levels in the urine accompanies many kidney diseases. It may be a consequence of a meat diet or cystitis. Often, additional comprehensive research is required to differentiate the disease of the urinary system.
NIT (nitrites)- healthy animals should not have these substances in their urine, but they cannot always be used to reliably judge the presence of pathogenic microflora in the urinary tract. A refined analysis will show a more accurate picture.
GLU (glucose)- a healthy animal does not have this substance. The appearance can be triggered by a stressful condition, which is more often observed in cats.
An increase in glucose levels is an indicator of diabetes mellitus; a blood sugar test is performed to clarify this. Other causes of glucosuria may be: pancreatic disease, acute renal failure, hyperthyroidism, glomerulonephritis, and taking certain medications.
pH (acidity)- indicator of the concentration of free hydrogen ions.
Changes in acidity are one of the factors leading to the formation of stones in the urinary tract. Deviations in the indicator can occur with protein overfeeding, chronic infection of the urinary ducts, pyelitis, cystitis, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Dogs and cats - from 6.5 to 7.0.
S.G (density, specific gravity)- shows the concentration of dissolved substances. It is important to analyze the indicator before starting treatment, for monitoring when prescribing IVs and diuretics.
Dogs - 1.015-1.025 g/ml.
Cats - 1.020-1.025 g/ml.
An increase above 1.030 and a decrease to 1.007 indicate functional renal impairment.
VTC (ascorbic acid)- is not deposited by the body and, in excess, is excreted in the urine.
Cats and dogs - up to 50 mg/dL.
The increase is caused by an excess of the vitamin when feeding or taking certain medications.
The decrease is associated with hypovitaminosis and unbalanced nutrition.
Sediment microscopy
It allows you to determine the presence of certain diseases that do not have visible symptoms. In addition to substances dissolved in urine, its composition is supplemented with solid salt crystals, tissue cells, and microorganisms. Their analysis allows us to create the most reliable picture of the animal’s health status.
Slime- a small amount is the result of the activity of mucous glands belonging to the urinary and reproductive systems.
An increase in mucus secretion prior to the formation of a clot signals the presence of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder wall).
Fat (drip)- can be kept in healthy animals, especially cats. The amount often depends on feeding.
The increase is associated with overfeeding with fatty foods, and sometimes indicates impaired renal function. Requires additional research to clarify the diagnosis.
Leukocytes- in a healthy animal there are single, up to 3 cells in the field of view during microscopic examination.
An increase in the number indicates the presence of inflammation or infection of the urinary tract. It may also be due to improper sample collection.
Red blood cells- appear in the urine as a result of bleeding occurring in various parts of the genitourinary system.
Therefore, it is important to know in which portion of urine the blood appeared (at the beginning, at the end, or throughout urination).
Up to 5 cells are allowed.
An increase in red blood cells (hematuria) or its derivatives (hemoglobin) leads to staining of urine. Hematuria or hemoglobinuria in the first phase of urination indicates damage to the urinary ducts or adjacent genital organs, and in the final phase - damage to the bladder. Uniform redness of the entire portion of the discharge can reveal injuries to any part of the genitourinary system.
Surface epithelium- may appear due to poor-quality urine collection, which contains washings from the genital organs.
Transitional epithelium- not normally present, its presence indicates inflammation of the urinary tract.
Renal epithelium- not present normally, found in kidney diseases.
Crystals- are insoluble salts that can be found in healthy animals without pathologies.
An increase in the amount is observed in animals prone to stone formation. However, this is not a reason to prescribe treatment without additional research.
Bacteria- In healthy animals, urine is sterile. Bacteria can be detected in incorrectly taken samples, which contain washings from adjacent organs of the reproductive system, as well as when the ascending tract of the genitourinary system is infected.
Sperm- come from the genitals due to poor-quality urine collection for analysis.
Cylinders- in normal condition, absent. They have the shape of urinary tubules, being a kind of plugs from organic structures of various origins accumulating in them, clogging the lumens and gradually being washed out with urine.
Up to 2 per microscope field.
An increase in the number of cylinders occurs with a disease of the urinary system. Based on their form and origin, they diagnose: stagnation phenomena, inflammation processes, dehydration, pyelonephritis, necrosis, damage to the parenchyma and tubules.
A general analysis of the animal's urine with sediment microscopy allows the doctor to make a preliminary diagnosis, which must be confirmed by additional studies.
General clinical examination of urine includes the determination of physical properties, chemical composition and microscopic examination of sediment.
Physical properties.
QUANTITY.
Fine The daily amount of urine averages 20-50 ml per kg body weight for dogs and 20-30 mg per kg body weight for cats.
Increased daily diuresis - polyuria.
Causes:
1. Convergence of edema;
2. Diabetes mellitus (Diabetes maleus) (together with a positive level of glucose in the urine and high specific gravity of urine);
3. Glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, pyelonephritis (together with negative glucose levels, high specific gravity of urine and severe proteinuria);
4. Cushing's syndrome, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, tumors, uterine diseases (pyometra), hyperthyroidism, liver disease (together with negative glucose levels, high specific gravity of urine and negative or mild proteinuria)
5. Chronic renal failure or diuresis after acute renal failure (together with low specific gravity of urine and increased levels of urea in the blood);
6. Diabetes insipidus (Diabetes insipidus) (together with low specific gravity of urine, which does not change when testing with fluid deprivation and a normal level of urea in the blood);
7. Psychogenic craving for drinking (together with low specific gravity of urine, which increases when testing with fluid deprivation and a normal level of urea in the blood)
Often causes polydipsia.
Decreased daily diuresis - oliguria.
Causes:
1. Profuse diarrhea;
2. Vomiting;
3. Increase in edema (regardless of its origin);
4. Too little fluid intake;
Lack of urine or too little urine (lack of urination or urine formation) - anuria.
Causes:
a) Prerenal anuria (arising due to extrarenal causes):
1. Severe blood loss (hypovolemia - hypovolemic shock);
2. Acute heart failure (cardiogenic shock);
3. Acute vascular insufficiency (vascular shock);
4. Uncontrollable vomiting;
5. Severe diarrhea.
b) Renal (secretory) anuria (associated with pathological processes in the kidneys):
1. Acute nephritis;
2. Necronephrosis;
3. Transfusion of incompatible blood;
4. Severe chronic kidney disease.
c) Obstructive (excretory) anuria (impossibility of urination):
1. Blockage of the ureters with stones;
2. Compression of the ureters by tumors developing near the ureters (neoplastic tumors of the uterus, ovaries, bladder, metastases from other organs.
COLOR
Normal urine color is straw yellow.
Color change may be due to the release of coloring compounds formed during organic changes or under the influence of food, drugs or contrast agents.
Red or red-brown (meat slop color)
Causes:
1. Macrohematuria;
2. Hemoglobinuria;
3. The presence of myoglobin in the urine;
4. The presence of porphyrin in the urine;
5. The presence of certain medications or their metabolites in the urine.
Dark yellow color (may have a greenish or greenish-brown tint, the color of dark beer)
Causes:
1. Excretion of bilirubin in the urine (with parenchymal or obstructive jaundice).
Greenish yellow color
Causes:
1. High content of pus in the urine.
Dirty brown or gray color
Causes:
1. Pyuria with alkaline urine reaction.
Very dark, almost black color
Causes:
1. Hemoglobinuria in acute hemolytic anemia.
Whitish color
Causes:
1. Phosphaturia (presence of a large amount of phosphates in the urine).
It should be taken into account that if urine sits for a long time, its color may change. As a rule, it becomes more saturated. When urobilin is formed from colorless urobilinogen under the influence of light, urine becomes dark yellow (to orange). When methemoglobin is formed, the urine becomes dark brown in color. In addition, changes in odor may be associated with the use of certain medications, feed or feed additives.
TRANSPARENCY
Normal urine is clear.
Cloudy urine can be caused by:
1. The presence of red blood cells in the urine;
2. The presence of leukocytes in the urine;
3. The presence of epithelial cells in the urine;
4. The presence of bacteria in the urine (bacteruria);
5. The presence of fatty droplets in the urine;
6. The presence of mucus in the urine;
7. Precipitation of salts.
In addition, the clarity of urine depends on:
1. Salt concentrations;
2. pH;
3. Storage temperatures (low temperatures contribute to the precipitation of salts);
4. Duration of storage (during long-term storage, salts precipitate).
SMELL
Normally, the urine of dogs and cats has a mild, specific odor.
A change in odor may be caused by:
1. Acetonuria (the appearance of the smell of acetone in diabetes mellitus);
2. Bacterial infections (ammonia, unpleasant odor);
3. Taking antibiotics or food additives (special specific smell).
DENSITY
Normal density of urine in dogs 1.015-1.034 (minimum - 1.001, maximum 1.065), in cats - 1.020-1.040.
Density is a measure of the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine.
They matter
1. The state of hydration of the animal;
2. Drinking and eating habits;
3. Ambient temperature;
4. Injected drugs;
5. Functional status or number of renal tubules.
Reasons for increased urine density:
1. Glucose in the urine;
2. Protein in urine (in large quantities);
3. Medicines (or their metabolites) in the urine;
4. Mannitol or dextran in urine (as a result of intravenous infusion).
Reasons for decreased urine density:
1. Diabetes mellitus;
3. Acute kidney damage.
We can talk about adequate kidney response, when, after a short abstinence from drinking water, the specific gravity of urine rises to the average norm. The kidney reaction is considered inadequate if the specific gravity does not rise above the minimum values when abstaining from water intake - isosthenuria (severely reduced ability to adapt).
Causes:
1. Chronic renal failure.
Chemical research.
pH
Normal urine pH Dogs and cats can be either slightly acidic or slightly alkaline, depending on the protein content of the diet. On average, urine pH ranges from 5-7.5 and is more often slightly acidic.
Increasing urine pH (pH>7.5) - alkalization of urine.
Causes:
1. Eating plant foods;
2. Profuse sour vomiting;
3. Hyperkalemia;
4. Resorption of edema;
5. Primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism (accompanied by hypercalcemia);
6. Metabolic or respiratory alkalosis;
7. Bacterial cystitis;
8. Introduction of sodium bicarbonate.
A decrease in urine pH (pH about 5 and below) - acidification of urine.
Causes:
1. Metabolic or respiratory acidosis;
2. Hypokalemia;
3. Dehydration;
4. Fever;
5. Fasting;
6. Long-term muscle load;
7. Diabetes mellitus;
8. Chronic renal failure;
9. Introduction of acid salts (for example, ammonium chloride).
PROTEIN
Normally there is protein in urine absent or its concentration is less than 100 mg/l.
Proteinuria- the appearance of protein in the urine.
Physiological proteinuria- cases of temporary appearance of protein in the urine, not associated with diseases.
Causes:
1. Taking a large amount of feed with a high protein content;
2. Strong physical activity;
3. Epileptic seizures.
Pathological proteinuria There are renal and extrarenal.
Extrarenal proteinuria can be extrarenal and postrenal.
Extrarenal extrarenal protenuria more often there is a temporary mild degree (300 mg/l).
Causes:
1. Heart failure;
2. Diabetes mellitus;
3. Fever;
4. Anemia;
5. Hypothermia;
6. Allergy;
7. Use of penicillin, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides;
8. Burns;
9. Dehydration;
10. Hemoglobinuria;
11. Myoglobinuria.
Severity of proteinuria is not a reliable indicator of the severity of the underlying disease and its prognosis.
Extrarenal postrenal proteinuria(false proteinuria, accidental proteinuria) rarely exceeds 1 g/l (except in cases of severe pyuria) and is accompanied by the formation of a large sediment.
Causes:
1. Cystitis;
2. Pyelitis;
3. Prostatitis;
4. Urethritis;
5. Vulvovaginitis.
6. Bleeding in the urinary tract.
Renal proteinuria occurs when protein enters the urine in the kidney parenchyma. In most cases, it is associated with increased permeability of the renal filter. In this case, a high protein content in the urine is detected (more than 1 g/l). Microscopic examination of urine sediment reveals cylinders.
Causes:
1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
2. Acute and chronic pyelonephritis;
3. Severe chronic heart failure;
4. Kidney amyloidosis;
5. Kidney neoplasms;
6. Kidney hydronephrosis;
7. Lipoid nephrosis;
8. Nephrotic syndrome;
9. Immune diseases with damage to the renal glomeruli by immune complexes;
10. Severe anemia.
Renal microalbuminuria- the presence of protein in the urine in concentrations below the sensitivity of reagent strips (from 1 to 30 mg\100 ml). It is an early sensitive indicator of various chronic kidney diseases.
Paraproteinuria- the appearance in the urine of a globulin protein that does not have the properties of antibodies (Bence Jones protein), consisting of light chains of immunoglobulins that easily pass through glomerular filters. This protein is secreted in plasmacytoma. Paraproteinuria develops without primary damage to the kidney glomeruli.
Tubular proteinuria- the appearance of small proteins in the urine (α1-microglobulin, β2-microglobulin, lysozyme, retinol-binding protein). They are normally present in the glomerular filtrate but are reabsorbed in the renal tubules. When the epithelium of the renal tubules is damaged, these proteins appear in the urine (determined only by electrophoresis). Tubular proteinuria is an early indicator of renal tubular damage in the absence of concomitant changes in circulating urea and creatinine levels.
Causes:
1. Medicines (aminoglycosides, cyclosporine);
2. Heavy metals (lead);
3. Analgesics (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory substances);
4. Ischemia;
5. Metabolic diseases (Fanconi-like syndrome).
False positive protein counts, obtained using a test strip, are characteristic of alkaline urine (pH 8).
False negative protein counts, obtained using a test strip are due to the fact that test strips show, first of all, the level of albumin (paraproteinuria and tubular proteinuria are not detected) and their content in urine is above 30 mg\100 ml (microalbuminuria is not detected).
Proteinuria assessment should be carried out taking into account clinical symptoms (fluid accumulation, edema) and other laboratory parameters (blood protein level, albumin-to-globulin ratio, urea, creatinine, serum lipids, cholesterol levels).
GLUCOSE
Normally, there is no glucose in the urine.
Glucosuria- presence of glucose in urine.
1. Glucosuria with high urine specific gravity(1.030) and elevated blood glucose levels (3.3 - 5 mmol/l) - a criterion for diabetes mellitus (Diadetes mellitus).
It should be taken into account that in animals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent), the renal glucose threshold (the concentration of glucose in the blood, above which glucose begins to enter the urine) may change significantly. Sometimes, with persistent normoglycemia, glucosuria persists (the renal glucose threshold is reduced). And with the development of glomerulosclerosis, the renal glucose threshold increases, and glucosuria may not occur even with severe hyperglycemia.
2.Renal glycosuria- is registered with an average specific gravity of urine and a normal level of glucose in the blood. A marker of tubular dysfunction is deterioration of reabsorption.
Causes:
1. Primary renal glycosuria in some dog breeds (Scottish terriers, Norwegian Elkhounds, mixed breed dogs);
2. A component of general dysfunction of the renal tubules - Fanconi-like syndrome (may be hereditary or acquired; glucose, amino acids, small globulins, phosphate and bicarbonate are excreted in the urine; described in Besenges, Norwegian Elkhounds, Shetland Sheepdogs, Miniature Schnauzers);
3. Use of certain nephrotoxic drugs.
4. Acute renal failure or aminoglycoside toxicity - if the level of urea in the blood is elevated.
3. Glucosuria with reduced specific gravity of urine(1.015 - 1.018) may be with the introduction of glucose.
4. Moderate glycosuria occurs in healthy animals with a significant nutritional load with feeds high in carbohydrates.
False positive result when determining glucose in urine with test strips, it is possible in cats with cystitis.
False negative result when determining glucose in urine with test strips, it is possible in dogs in the presence of ascorbic acid (it is synthesized in dogs in varying quantities).
BILIRUBIN
Normally, there is no bilirubin in the urine of cats., concentrated dog urine may contain trace amounts of bilirubin.
Bilirubinuria- the appearance of bilirubin (direct) in the urine.
Causes:
1. Parenchymal jaundice (damage to the liver parenchyma);
2. Obstructive jaundice (impaired bile outflow).
It is used as an express method for the differential diagnosis of hemolytic jaundice - bilirubinuria is not typical for them, since indirect bilirubin does not pass through the renal filter.
UROBILINOGEN
The upper limit of normal for urobilinogen in urine about 10 mg/l.
Urobilinogenuria- increased levels of urobilinogen in urine.
Causes:
1. Increased hemoglobin catabolism: hemolytic anemia, intravascular hemolysis (transfusion of incompatible blood, infections, sepsis), pernicious anemia, polycythemia, resorption of massive hematomas;
2. Increased formation of urobilinogen in the gastrointestinal tract: enterocolitis, ileitis;
3. Increased formation and reabsorption of urobilinogen during inflammation of the biliary system - cholangitis;
4. Impaired liver function: chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver, toxic liver damage (poisoning with organic compounds, toxins in infectious diseases and sepsis); secondary liver failure (heart and circulatory failure, liver tumors);
5. Liver bypass surgery: liver cirrhosis with portal hypertension, thrombosis, renal vein obstruction.
Of particular diagnostic importance is:
1. For lesions of the liver parenchyma in cases without jaundice;
2. For the differential diagnosis of parenchymal jaundice from obstructive jaundice, in which there is no urobilinogenuria.
KETONE BODIES
Normally, there are no ketone bodies in urine.
Ketonuria- the appearance of ketone bodies in the urine (as a result of accelerated incomplete oxidation of fatty acids as an energy source).
Causes:
1. Severe decompensation of type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) and long-term type II diabetes (non-insulin-dependent) with depletion of pancreatic beta cells and the development of absolute insulin deficiency.
2. Severe - hyperketonemic diabetic coma;
3. Precomatose states;
4. Cerebral coma;
5. Long fasting;
6. Severe fever;
7. Hyperinsulinism;
8. Hypercatecholemia;
9. Postoperative period.
NITRITES
Normally, there are no nitrites in the urine.
The appearance of nitrites in the urine indicates infection of the urinary tract, since many pathogenic bacteria reduce nitrates present in the urine into nitrites.
Of particular diagnostic importance when determining asymptomatic urinary tract infections (at risk are animals with prostate tumors, patients with diabetes mellitus, after urological operations or instrumental procedures on the urinary tract).
erythrocytes
Normally, there are no red blood cells in the urine or physiological microhematuria is allowed when examined with test strips of up to 3 red blood cells/μl of urine.
Hematuria- the content of red blood cells in the urine is more than 5 in 1 μl of urine.
Gross hematuria- can be installed with the naked eye.
Microhematuria- can only be detected using test strips or microscopy. Often caused by cystocentesis or catheterization.
Hematuria, originating from the bladder and urethra.
In approximately 75% of cases, macrohematuria is often combined with dysuria and pain on palpation.
Causes:
1. Stones in the bladder and urethra;
2. Infectious or drug-induced (cyclophosphamide) cystitis;
3. Urethritis;
4. Tumors of the bladder;
5. Injuries to the bladder and urethra (crushing, ruptures).
The admixture of blood only at the beginning of urination indicates bleeding between the neck of the bladder and the opening of the urethra.
An admixture of blood predominantly at the end of urination indicates bleeding in the bladder.
Hematuria originating from the kidneys (approximately 25% of cases of hematuria).
Uniform hematuria from the beginning to the end of urination. In this case, microscopy of the sediment reveals erythrocyte casts. Such bleeding is relatively rare, is combined with proteinuria and is less intense compared to bleeding in the urinary tract.
Causes:
1. Physical overload;
2. Infectious diseases (leptospirosis, septicemia);
3. Hemorrhagic diathesis of various etiologies;
4. Coagulopathies (dicoumarol poisoning);
5. Consumption coagulopathy (DIC syndrome);
6. Kidney injuries;
7. Thrombosis of renal vessels;
8. Kidney neoplasms;
9. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
10. Pyelitis, pyelonephritis;
11. Glomerulo- and tubulonephrosis (poisoning, taking medications);
12. Severe venous stagnation;
13. Displacement of the spleen;
14. Systemic lupus erythematosus;
15. Overdose of anticoagulants, sulfonamides, methenamine.
16. Idiopathic renal hematuria.
Bleeding, occurring independently of urination, are localized in the urethra, prepuce, vagina, uterus (estrus) or prostate gland.
HEMOGLOBIN, MYOGLOBIN
Normally absent when examined with test strips.
Causes of myoglobinuria:
1. Muscle damage (creatine kinase levels increase in the circulating blood).
Hemoglobinuria is always accompanied by hemoglobinemia. If hemolyzed red blood cells are found in the urinary sediment, the cause is hematuria.
Microscopic examination of sediment.
There are elements of organized and unorganized urine sediment. The main elements of organized sediment are erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelium and casts; unorganized - crystalline and amorphous salts.
EPITHELIUM
Fine in the urine sediment, single cells of squamous (urethra) and transitional epithelium (pelvis, ureters, bladder) are found in the field of view. The renal epithelium (tubules) is normally absent.
Squamous epithelial cells. Normally, it occurs in larger quantities in females. Detection of layers of flat epithelium and horny scales in the sediment is a sign of squamous metaplasia of the mucous membrane of the urinary tract.
Transitional epithelial cells.
Reasons for the significant increase in their number:
1. Acute inflammatory processes in the bladder and renal pelvis;
2. Intoxication;
3. Urolithiasis;
4. Neoplasms of the urinary tract.
Epithelial cells of the urinary tubules (renal epithelium).
Reasons for their appearance:
1. Jades;
2. Intoxication;
3. Circulatory failure;
4. Necrotic nephrosis (in case of poisoning with sublimate, antifreeze, dichloroethane) - epithelium in very large quantities;
5. Kidney amyloidosis (rarely in the albuminemic stage, often in the edematous-hypertensive and azotemic stage);
6. Lipoid nephrosis (desquamated renal epithelium is often found fat-degenerated).
If conglomerates of epithelial cells are detected, especially those varying moderately or significantly in shape and/or size, further cytological examination is necessary to determine the possible malignancy of these cells.
LEUKOCYTES
Normally there are no leukocytes or single leukocytes per field of view may be observed (0-3 leukocytes per field of view at a magnification of 400).
Leukocyturia- more than 3 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope at a magnification of 400.
Piuria- over 60 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope at a magnification of 400.
Infectious leukocyturia, often pyuria.
Causes:
1. Inflammatory processes in the bladder, urethra, renal pelvis.
2. Infected discharge from the prostate, vagina, uterus.
Aseptic leukocyturia.
Causes:
1. Glomerulonephritis;
2. Amyloidosis;
3. Chronic interstitial nephritis.
erythrocytes
Normally, urine sediment contains no or single in the preparation (0-3 in the field of view at a magnification of 400).
The appearance or increase in the number of red blood cells in urine sediment is called hematuria.
For reasons, see above in the “Chemical examination of urine” section.
CYLINDERS
Fine in the urine sediment, hyaline and granular casts may be detected - single in the preparation - with unchanged urine.
Urinary cylinders not contained in alkaline urine. Neither the number nor the type of urinary casts indicates the severity of the disease and is not specific for any kidney damage. The absence of casts in urine sediment does not indicate the absence of kidney disease.
Cylindruria- the presence in the urine of an increased number of cylinders of any type.
Hyaline casts consist of protein that gets into the urine due to stagnation or an inflammatory process.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Proteinuria not associated with kidney damage (albuminemia, venous congestion in the kidneys, heavy physical activity, cooling);
2. Feverish conditions;
3. Various organic kidney lesions, both acute and chronic;
4. Dehydration.
There is no correlation between the severity of proteinuria and the number of hyaline casts, since the formation of casts depends on the pH of the urine.
Grainy cylinders- consist of tubular epithelial cells.
Reasons for education:
1. The presence of severe degeneration in the tubular epithelium (necrosis of the tubular epithelium, kidney inflammation).
Waxy cylinders.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Severe damage to the kidney parenchyma (both acute and chronic).
Red blood cell casts are formed from accumulations of red blood cells. Their presence in urine sediment indicates the renal origin of hematuria.
Causes:
1. Inflammatory kidney diseases;
2. Bleeding into the kidney parenchyma;
3. Kidney infarctions.
Leukocyte casts- are quite rare.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Pyelonephritis.
SALT AND OTHER ELEMENTS
The precipitation of salts depends on the properties of urine, in particular on its pH.
In acidic urine, the following precipitates:
1. Uric acid
2. Uric acid salts;
3. Calcium phosphate;
4. Calcium sulfate.
In urine that gives a basic (alkaline) reaction, the following precipitate:
1. Amorphous phosphates;
2. Tripelphosphates;
3. Neutral magnesium phosphate;
4. Calcium carbonate;
5. Crystals of sulfonamides.
Crystalluria- the appearance of crystals in the urinary sediment.
Uric acid.
Fine There are no uric acid crystals.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Pathologically acidic urine pH in renal failure (early sedimentation - within an hour after urination);
2. Fever;
3. Conditions accompanied by increased tissue breakdown (leukemia, massive decaying tumors, pneumonia in the resolution stage);
4. Heavy physical activity;
5. Uric acid diathesis;
6. Feeding exclusively meat feeds.
Amorphous urates- Urate salts give urine sediment a brick-pink color.
Fine- single in the field of view.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
2. Chronic renal failure;
3. “Congestive kidney”;
4. Fever.
Oxalates- salts of oxalic acid, mainly calcium oxalate.
Fine oxalates are rare in the field of view.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Pyelonephritis;
2. Diabetes mellitus;
3. Disorders of calcium metabolism;
4. After epileptic attacks;
5. Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning.
Tripelphosphates, neutral phosphates, calcium carbonate.
Fine are missing.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Cystitis;
2. Abundant intake of plant foods;
3. Vomiting.
May cause the development of stones.
Acid ammonium urate.
Fine absent.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Cystitis with ammonia fermentation in the bladder;
2. Uric acid renal infarction in newborns.
3. Insufficiency of the liver, especially with congenital portosystemic shunts;
4. In Dalmatian dogs in the absence of pathology.
Cystine crystals.
Fine absent.
Reasons for appearance:
cytinosis (congenital disorder of amino acid metabolism).
Crystals of leucine, tyrosine.
Fine are missing.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Acute yellow atrophy of the liver;
2. Leukemia;
3. Phosphorus poisoning.
Cholesterol crystals.
Fine are missing.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Amyloid and lipoid dystrophy of the kidneys;
2. Kidney neoplasms;
3. Kidney abscess.
Fatty acid.
Fine are missing.
Causes of appearance (very rare):
1. Fatty kidney degeneration;
2. Disintegration of the epithelium of the renal tubules.
Hemosiderin- a breakdown product of hemoglobin.
Fine absent.
Reasons for appearance
- hemolytic anemia with intravascular hemolysis of red blood cells.
Hematoidin- a breakdown product of hemoglobin that does not contain iron.
Fine absent.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Calculous (associated with the formation of stones) pyelitis;
2. Kidney abscess;
3. New growths of the bladder and kidneys.
BACTERIA
Normally there are no bacteria or determined in urine obtained during spontaneous urination or using a catheter, in an amount of no more than 2x103 bact.\ml of urine.
The quantitative content of bacteria in the urine is of decisive importance.
- 100,000 (1x105) or more microbial bodies per ml of urine is an indirect sign of inflammation in the urinary organs.
- 1000 - 10000 (1x103 - 1x104) microbial bodies per ml of urine - raise suspicion of inflammatory processes in the urinary tract. In females this amount may be normal.
- less than 1000 microbial bodies per ml of urine are regarded as the result of secondary pollution.
Normally, urine obtained by cystocentesis should contain no bacteria at all.
When examining a general urine test, only the fact of bacteriuria is stated. In a native preparation, 1 bacterium in an oil immersion field of view corresponds to 10,000 (1x104) bact./ml, but bacteriological testing is necessary to accurately determine the quantitative characteristics.
The presence of a urinary tract infection can be signaled by simultaneously detected bacteriuria, hematuria and pyuria.
Yeast fungi
Normally none.
Reasons for appearance:
1. Glucosuria;
2. Antibiotic therapy;
3. Long-term storage of urine.
Clinical blood test
Normal hematological blood parameters in dogsIndicator Unit Adults and Puppies
Hemoglobin g/l 120-180 74-180
Red blood cells million/µl 5.5-8.5 3.3-7.4
Hematocrit vol% 37-55 22-52
ESR mm/h 0-13
Leukocytes thousand/µl 6-17 7.2-18.6
Band neutrophils % 0-3 units/µl 0-300 0-400
Segmented neutrophils % 60-77 units/μl 3000-11500 1300-11000 Eosinophils % 2-10 units/μl 100-1250 0-2200
Basophils % 0-2 units/µl 0-50 0-100
Lymphocytes % 12-30 units/µl 1000-4800 1600-6400
Monocytes % 3-10 units/μl 150-1350 0-400
Myelocytes no no
Reticulocytes % 0-1.5 0-7.1
Red blood cell diameter μm 6.7-7.2
Platelets thousand/µl 200-500
Possible causes of deviations from normal hematological parameters.
Hemoglobin.Increase: some forms of hemoblastosis, in particular erythremia, dehydration.
Decreased (anemia): various types of anemia, incl. due to blood loss.
Red blood cells.
Increased: erythremia, heart failure, chronic lung diseases, dehydration.
Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic and due to blood loss.
Hematocrit
Increased: erythremia, cardiac and pulmonary failure, dehydration.
Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic.
ESR.
Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, infections, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies, blood loss, injuries, surgical interventions.
Leukocytes.
Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, viral infections, invasions, blood loss, injuries, allergic reactions, tumors, myeloid leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia.
Decreased: acute and chronic infections (rare), liver diseases, autoimmune diseases, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.
Neutrophils.
Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, shock, blood loss, hemolytic anemia.
Decreased: viral infections, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.
An increase in the number of band neutrophils, the appearance of myelocytes: sepsis, malignant tumors, myeloid leukemia.
Eosinophils.
Increased: allergic reactions, sensitization, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies.
Basophils.
Increase: hemoblastosis.
Lymphocytes.
Increased: infections, neutropenia (relative increase), lymphocytic leukemia.
Monocytes.
Increased: chronic infections, tumors, chronic monocytic leukemia.
Myelocytes.
Detection: chronic myeloid leukemia, acute and chronic inflammatory processes, sepsis, bleeding, shock.
Reticulocytes.
Increased: blood loss, hemolytic anemia
Decreased: hypoplastic anemia.
Red blood cell diameter.
Increased: B12 and folate deficiency anemia, liver disease. Decreased: iron deficiency and hemolytic anemia.
Platelets.
Increased: myeloproliferative diseases.
Decreased: acute and chronic leukemia, liver cirrhosis, aplastic anemia, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenic purpura, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, allergies, intoxication, chronic infections.
Blood biochemistry
Norms of biochemical parameters of dog blood serum (according to M. Filippov, 2001)
Glucose 3.3-6.0 Mmol/l
Protein 54-77 g/l
Albumin 25-37 g/l
Cholesterol 3.3-7.0 Mmol/l
Total bilirubin 0-7.5 µmol/l
Alanine aminotransferase 10-55 U/l
Aspartate aminotransferase 10-55 U/l
Lactate dehydrogenase 50-495 U/l
Alkaline phosphatase 10-150 U/l
Gamma-glutamyltransferase 1-10 U/l
Amylase 300-2000 U/l
Urea 4.3-8.9 Mmol/l
Creatinine 35-133 µmol/l
Inorganic phosphorus 0.7-1.8 µmol/l
Calcium 2.0-2.7 µmol/l
Magnesium 0.72-1.2 µmol/l
Uric acid up to 160 (according to P.F. Suter, 2001) µmol/l
Triglycerides 0.56 (according to P.F. Suter 2001) µmol/l
Electrolytes:
Potassium (K+) 4.0-5.7 µmol/l
Sodium (Na+) 141-155 µmol/l
Chlorides (Cl-) 103-115 µmol/l
Possible reasons for deviation from the norm
1. Glucose is a universal source of energy for cells - the main substance from which any cell in the body receives energy for life. The body's need for energy, and therefore glucose, increases in parallel with physical and psychological stress under the influence of the stress hormone - adrenaline, during growth, development, recovery (growth hormones, thyroid, adrenal glands). The average value for dogs is 4.3-7.3 mmol/l. For the absorption of glucose by cells, a normal level of insulin, the pancreatic hormone, is necessary. With its deficiency (diabetes mellitus), glucose cannot enter the cells, its level in the blood is increased, and the cells starve. Increased (hyperglycemia): - diabetes mellitus (insulin deficiency) - physical or emotional stress (adrenaline release) - thyrotoxicosis (increased thyroid function) - Cushing's syndrome (increased levels of the adrenal hormone - cortisol) - pancreatic diseases (pancreatitis, tumor, cystic fibrosis ) - chronic diseases of the liver, kidneys Reduction (hypoglycemia): - fasting - insulin overdose - diseases of the pancreas (tumor from cells that synthesize insulin) - tumors (excessive consumption of glucose as an energy material by tumor cells) - insufficiency of the function of the endocrine glands (adrenal glands, thyroid , pituitary gland (growth hormone)) - severe poisoning with liver damage (alcohol, arsenic, chlorine and phosphorus compounds, salicylates, antihistamines)
2. General protein “Life is the way of existence of protein bodies.” Proteins are the main biochemical criterion of life. They are part of all anatomical structures (muscles, cell membranes), transport substances through the blood and into cells, accelerate the course of biochemical reactions in the body, recognize substances - their own or foreign ones and protect them from foreign ones, regulate metabolism, retain fluid in blood vessels and do not allow it to go into the tissue. Proteins are synthesized in the liver from food amino acids. Total blood protein consists of two fractions: albumin and globulin. Average for dogs - 59-73 g/l, Increase (hyperproteinemia): - dehydration (burns, diarrhea, vomiting - relative increase in protein concentration due to a decrease in fluid volume) - multiple myeloma (excessive production of gamma globulins) Decrease (hypoproteinemia): - fasting (complete or protein - strict vegetarianism, anorexia nervosa) - intestinal diseases (malabsorption) - nephrotic syndrome (renal failure) - increased consumption (blood loss, burns, tumors, ascites, chronic and acute inflammation) - chronic liver failure (hepatitis , cirrhosis)
3. Albumin is one of two fractions of total protein - transport.
The norm for dogs is 22-39 g/l. Increase (hyperalbuminemia): True (absolute) hyperalbuminemia does not exist. Relative occurs when the total volume of fluid decreases (dehydration) Reduction (hypoalbuminemia): The same as for general hypoproteinemia.
4. General bilirubin is a component of bile, consists of two fractions - indirect (unbound), formed during the breakdown of blood cells (erythrocytes), and direct (bound), formed from indirect in the liver and excreted through the bile ducts into the intestines. It is a coloring substance (pigment), so when it increases in the blood, the color of the skin changes - jaundice. Increased (hyperbilirubinemia): - damage to liver cells (hepatitis, hepatosis - parenchymal jaundice) - obstruction of the bile ducts (obstructive jaundice)
5.Urea is a product of protein metabolism that is removed by the kidneys. Some remains in the blood. The norm for a dog is 3-8.5 mmol/l, Increase: - impaired renal function - urinary tract obstruction - increased protein content in food - increased protein destruction (burns, acute myocardial infarction) Decrease: - protein starvation - excess protein intake (pregnancy, acromegaly) - malabsorption
6. Creatinine is the final product of the metabolism of creatine, synthesized in the kidneys and liver from three amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine). It is completely excreted from the body by the kidneys by glomerular filtration, without being reabsorbed in the renal tubules. The norm for a dog is 30-170 µmol/l. Increased: - impaired renal function (renal failure) - hyperthyroidism Decreased: - pregnancy - age-related decreases in muscle mass
7.Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) An enzyme produced by cells of the liver, skeletal muscles and heart. The norm for a dog is 0-65 IU, Increase: - destruction of liver cells (necrosis, cirrhosis, jaundice, tumors) - destruction of muscle tissue (trauma, myositis, muscular dystrophy) - burns - toxic effects on the liver of drugs (antibiotics, etc.)
8. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) - An enzyme produced by cells of the heart, liver, skeletal muscles and red blood cells. Average content in dogs is 10-42 units, Increased: - damage to liver cells (hepatitis, toxic damage from drugs, liver metastases) - heavy physical activity - heart failure - burns, heat stroke
9. Gamma-glutamyltransferase (Gamma-GT) - An enzyme produced by cells of the liver, pancreas, and thyroid gland. dogs - 0-8 units, Increase: - liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis, cancer) - pancreas diseases (pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus) - hyperthyroidism (hyperfunction of the thyroid gland)
10. Alpha-Amylase - An enzyme produced by the cells of the pancreas and parotid salivary glands. The norm for a dog is 550-1700 units, Increase: - pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) - mumps (inflammation of the parotid salivary gland) - diabetes mellitus - volvulus of the stomach and intestines - peritonitis Decrease: - pancreatic insufficiency - thyrotoxicosis Potassium, sodium, chlorides -Provide electrical properties of cell membranes. On different sides of the cell membrane, a difference in concentration and charge is specially maintained: there is more sodium and chloride outside the cell, and potassium inside, but less than sodium outside - this creates a potential difference between the sides of the cell membrane - a resting charge that allows the cell to be alive and respond to nerve impulses, participating in the systemic activities of the body. Losing charge, the cell leaves the system, because cannot perceive brain commands. Thus, sodium and chlorides are extracellular ions, potassium is intracellular. In addition to maintaining the resting potential, these ions take part in the generation and conduction of a nerve impulse - the action potential. Regulation of mineral metabolism in the body (hormones of the adrenal cortex) is aimed at retaining sodium, which is lacking in natural food (without table salt), and removing potassium from the blood, where it enters during cell destruction. Ions, together with other solutes, retain fluid: cytoplasm inside cells, extracellular fluid in tissues, blood in blood vessels, regulating blood pressure, preventing the development of edema. Chlorides are part of gastric juice.
11. Potassium: dogs - 3.6-5.5, Increased potassium (hyperkalemia): - cell damage (hemolysis - destruction of blood cells, severe starvation, convulsions, severe injuries) - dehydration - acute renal failure (impaired excretion by the kidneys) - hyperadrenocorticosis Decreased potassium ( hypokalemia) - impaired renal function - excess hormones of the adrenal cortex (including taking dosage forms of cortisone) - hypoadrenocorticosis
12. Dog sodium - 140-155, Increased sodium (hypernatremia), excessive retention (increased function of the adrenal cortex) - disturbance of the central regulation of water-salt metabolism (pathology of the hypothalamus, coma) Reduction of sodium (hyponatremia): - loss (abuse of diuretics, kidney pathology , adrenal insufficiency) - decreased concentration due to increased fluid volume (diabetes mellitus, chronic heart failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome, edema)
13. Dog chlorides – 105-122, Increased chlorides: - dehydration - acute renal failure - diabetes insipidus - salicylate poisoning - increased function of the adrenal cortex Decrease in chlorides: - profuse diarrhea, vomiting, - increased fluid volume
14. Dog calcium – 2.25-3 mmol/l. Participates in the conduction of nerve impulses, especially in the heart muscle. Like all ions, it retains fluid in the vascular bed, preventing the development of edema. Necessary for muscle contraction and blood clotting. Part of bone tissue and tooth enamel. Blood levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D. Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels by leaching from bones, increasing intestinal absorption and delaying renal excretion. Increased (hypercalcemia): - increased function of the parathyroid gland - malignant tumors with bone damage (metastases, myeloma, leukemia) - excess vitamin D - dehydration Decreased (hypocalcemia): - decreased function of the thyroid gland - vitamin D deficiency - chronic renal failure - magnesium deficiency
15. Inorganic phosphorus Dogs – 0.8-2.3, An element that is part of nucleic acids, bone tissue and the main energy supply systems of the cell - ATP. Regulated in parallel with calcium levels. Increase: - destruction of bone tissue (tumors, leukemia) - excess vitamin D - healing of fractures - endocrine disorders - renal failure Decrease: - lack of growth hormone - vitamin D deficiency - malabsorption, severe diarrhea, vomiting - hypercalcemia
16.Alkaline phosphatase Dogs – 0-100, Enzyme formed in bone tissue, liver, intestines, placenta, lungs. Increase: - pregnancy - increased turnover in bone tissue (rapid growth, healing of fractures, rickets, hyperparathyroidism) - bone diseases (osteogenic sarcoma, cancer metastases in the bone) - liver disease Decrease: - hypothyroidism (underfunction of the thyroid gland) - anemia (anemia) - lack of vitamin C, B12, zinc, magnesium LIPIDS Lipids (fats) are substances necessary for a living organism. The main lipid that a person receives from food, and from which their own lipids are then formed, is cholesterol. It is part of cell membranes and maintains their strength. From it the so-called steroid hormones: hormones of the adrenal cortex, regulating water-salt and carbohydrate metabolism, adapting the body to new conditions; sex hormones. Bile acids are formed from cholesterol, which are involved in the absorption of fats in the intestines. Vitamin D, which is necessary for the absorption of calcium, is synthesized from cholesterol in the skin under the influence of sunlight. When the integrity of the vascular wall is damaged and/or there is excess cholesterol in the blood, it is deposited on the wall and forms a cholesterol plaque. This condition is called vascular atherosclerosis: plaques narrow the lumen, interfere with blood flow, disrupt the smooth flow of blood, increase blood clotting, and promote the formation of blood clots. In the liver, various complexes of lipids with proteins are formed that circulate in the blood: high, low and very low density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL, VLDL); total cholesterol is divided between them. Low and very low density lipoproteins are deposited in plaques and contribute to the progression of atherosclerosis. High-density lipoproteins, due to the presence of a special protein in them - apoprotein A1 - help to “pull” cholesterol from plaques and play a protective role, stopping atherosclerosis. To assess the risk of a condition, it is not the total level of total cholesterol that is important, but the ratio of its fractions.
17. Total cholesterol in Dogs – 2.9-8.3, Increased: - liver disease - hypothyroidism (underfunction of the thyroid gland) - coronary heart disease (atherosclerosis) - hyperadrenocorticism Decrease: - enteropathy accompanied by loss of protein - hepatopathy (portocaval anastomosis, cirrhosis) - malignant neoplasms - poor nutrition
Analysis of urine
Fine:
Indicator Units Norm Amount ml/kg/day 24-41
Yellow color
Transparency transparent
Density g/ml 1.0 15 - 1.0 50
Protein mg/l 0-300
Glucose 0
Ketone bodies 0
Creatinine g/l 1-3
Amylase units
Somogy 50-150
Bilirubin traces
Urobilinogen traces pH units 5.0-7.0
Hemoglobin 0
Red blood cells 0-unit
Leukocytes 0-unit
0-unit cylinders
Possible reasons for deviations from normal values
Color.
Normally, urine is yellow in color. A decrease or disappearance of the yellow color indicates a decrease in the concentration of urine as a result of increased excretion of water (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates increased urine concentration, for example due to dehydration (oliguria). Urine acquires a green color as a result of the release of bilirubin. The color of urine changes after taking certain vitamins.
Transparency.
Normal urine is clear. Cloudy urine occurs when bacteria, white blood cells, red blood cells, epithelial cells, salts, fat and mucus are secreted. Turbidity that disappears when urine is heated in a test tube is probably caused by urate. If the turbidity does not disappear after heating, then add a few drops of acetic acid to the test tube. The disappearance of turbidity indicates the presence of phosphates. If the cloudiness disappears after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, this may indicate the presence of calcium oxalate. The turbidity caused by droplets of fat disappears after shaking the urine with a mixture of alcohol and ether.
Bilirubin.
Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis (autoimmune hemolytic anemia, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis), liver disease, impaired flow of bile into the intestines, fever, fasting.
Urobilinogen.
Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis, liver disease, increased activity of intestinal microflora. Absence: impaired flow of bile into the intestines. pH. Normally, dog urine has a slightly acidic or neutral reaction. Urine alkalinity may indicate a plant-based diet, alkaline medications, chronic urinary tract infection, metabolic and respiratory alkalosis. The acidity of urine increases with a meat diet, increased breakdown of proteins, administration of acidic drugs, metabolic and respiratory acidosis.
Hemoglobin.
Detection (hemoglobinuria): autoimmune hemolytic anemia, sepsis, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, poisoning with hemolytic poisons (phenothiazine, methylene blue, copper and lead preparations), infusion of incompatible blood. Hemoglobinuria is distinguished from hematuria by microscopy of urine sediment. With hematuria, a large number of red blood cells are found in the urine sediment. False hemoglobinuria can occur with hemolysis of red blood cells in weakly concentrated and old urine.
Red blood cells.
Detection in significant quantities (hematuria): pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, hemorrhagic diathesis, thrombocytopenia, anticoagulant poisoning, kidney infarction, inflammatory diseases, injuries and tumors of the genitourinary organs, urolithiasis, dioctophimosis.
Leukocytes.
Detection in significant quantities: inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract.
Cylinders.
Detection in significant quantities: renal parenchyma damage, proteinuria (hyaline casts), hematuria (erythrocyte casts), hemoglobinuria (pigment casts), pyelonephritis (leukocyte casts)