Theories of the origin of education in primitive society. Dzhurinsky A. History of foreign pedagogy
The problem of the origin of education has always interested scientists.
At present, there are two concepts of the origin of education in science:
evolutionary biological;
psychological.
According to the first, the educational activity of people of primitive society is close in essence to the instinctive care for offspring observed in higher animals.
The second explains the origin of education inherent in children by the unconscious instinct to imitate adults.
The origin of education as a special type of human activity occurred 40-35 thousand years ago, when a gradual transition to collective labor begins in the communities of paleontrops.
There was no specially organized upbringing in primitive society, however, according to the data of archaeologists and ethnographers, during this period a system was formed to include the younger generation in life. In the primitive community, the child was directly included in the activities available to him along with the elders.
In the early stages of the development of primitive society, in particular in prenatal society, three age groups were distinguished:
children and teenagers;
full and full participants in life and work;
the elderly and old people.
The born child was initially in the care of the mother. When he began to sit, he was accustomed to hard food. Children were considered to belong to the whole family. They were not specially looked after, but there was always one of the adults nearby. Children enjoyed great freedom and independence, almost no punishment was applied, they were taught endurance, elementary methods of labor. They were given the opportunity to experience the correctness of adults, to get acquainted with all aspects of their social activities. Preparation for life in primitive society was not separated from participation in it. In joint work with adults, children acquired the necessary skills and abilities. Joint work on the part of adults was in the nature of learning, while children imitated the behavior of adults.
The gradual accumulation of techniques and means of physical, labor and moral training of the younger generation leads to its qualitative changes in the conditions of the late primitive community.
In the 8-5th millennium BC. primitive people have new forms of activity. Along with gathering, hunting, they begin to engage in agriculture and animal husbandry, i.e. the differentiation of labor is growing, the social structure of society is becoming more complex. The creation of food reserves can significantly increase life expectancy, and the birth rate in the community increases. The group form of marriage is replaced by a pair marriage. With the emergence of the family, the foundations of the home-family form of education are laid. In infancy, the upbringing of the child was mainly carried out by the mother. Often, along with her, other women of the family nurse and feed the child. An important ceremony was the naming of a child, carried out up to 3-4 years. Usually the child received the name of his grandfather - in this way the ancestor, as it were, was reborn in descendants. In the period from 3-4 to 6-7 years, other relatives are involved in the upbringing of the child. In maternal and tribal communities, a special role was played by the uncle - the mother's brother (the so-called. avunculate - upbringing by a maternal uncle - survived until the formation of a class society). In children, they sought to develop such qualities as devotion to the family, collectivism, and cockiness. Where there were constant wars, special attention was paid to the education of aggressiveness.
The end of childhood coincided with the onset of physical maturity. By the age of 13, children enter adulthood. The transition to the category of adults was accompanied by initiation rites - initiations which were especially difficult for boys.
During such tests, the preparation of young people for life was tested: the ability to endure pain, deprivation, and show endurance. Preparation for initiations was carried out in stages and separately for boys and girls. The initiates were isolated in special places - "houses of young men", "houses of youth", where the elders acquainted them with the norms of morality, rights and obligations in the family and community. Each clan had its own training program, which included the knowledge and skills necessary for a future hunter, farmer, and warrior. This program provided for certain physical, labor, social and moral training. Education was often accompanied by rituals that served as signs of belonging to the adult class (tattoo, circumcision, etc.). The initiations ended with a common feast - the return of the initiates to the community. The system of initiation has led to the fact that in tribal communities education is differentiated, a group of people is singled out who is directly involved in the education of the younger generation.
With the development of the productive forces and the expansion of labor experience, education becomes more complex, acquires a systematic and multifaceted character. The tribal community entrusts the task of education to the most experienced people, and the beginnings of military education appear (archery, horseback riding, possession of a spear, etc.). The implementation of education by special people, the expansion and complication of its content - all this testified to the fact that in the conditions of a tribal society, education stands out as a special form of social activity.
With the advent of private property, slavery and the monogamous family, primitive society begins to disintegrate. From the tribal community, the functions of raising children are transferred to the family.
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education primitive society form
Introduction
Conclusion
Introduction
The problem of the origin of education helps to present and understand the essence of education in the reality of concrete historical events. Understanding this problem allows us to take a broader look at the usual arsenal of pedagogical tools.
The process of education in a primitive society is quite difficult to imagine because of the small amount of written evidence about it.
Interesting information is contained in the works of scientists and travelers of the 13th - early 19th centuries, who described the life of the natives of Australia, Africa, Polynesia, Siberia, South and North America, who at that time were at the stage of primitive development.
Ethnographic data on the life of a few tribes that have retained the features of primitiveness, rare communities that have not been affected by modern civilization, help to reconstruct the elements of education of the primitive era. Among the evidence can be attributed to the finds of archaeologists (primitive tools and household items, children's toys, rock art, etc.), folklore (folk games, rituals, entertainment), the roots of which go back centuries, as well as the metaphorical level of the language (sayings, proverbs, epics, etc.).
Targetwork-describe education in a primitive society.
proceedingfromdeliveredgoalsweredefinedthe followingtasks:
Give a general description of education in primitive society;
Describe the concept of the genesis of primitive education.
1. Concepts of the genesis of primitive education
1.1 The question of the origin of education
The question of the origin of education is of great fundamental importance. Bourgeois scholars and scholars who adhere to Marxist-Leninist methodological positions approach it differently. Despite the fact that among bourgeois sociologists there are different opinions on this issue, they all tend to ignore the close connection that existed between the economic life and labor activity of primitive people and the education of children at the earliest stage of social development. A number of concepts of bourgeois scientists about the origin of education were created under the influence of vulgar evolutionary ideas about human development, which leads to ignoring the social essence of education, to the biologization of the educational process.
Using carefully collected factual material about the presence in the animal world of the “concern” of older generations about the transfer of skills to the younger ones to adapt to the environment, supporters of such concepts (for example, C. Letourneau, A. Espinas) identify the instinctive actions of animals with the educational practice of primitive people. They come to the wrong conclusion that the only basis of education is the instinctive desire of people to procreate and the law of natural selection.
There is also a widespread opinion among bourgeois scientists, which was formed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, that the basis of education is the instinctive desire of children to actively imitate their elders (this theory was developed, for example, by the American author P. Monroe). Thus, the biological interpretation of the causes of education was opposed to the psychological one. This theory, like any attempt to explain the emergence of a social phenomenon exclusively by psychological factors, is clearly idealistic in nature, although, of course, elements of imitation do take place in the process of education and communication of children with peers and adults.
The Soviet history of pedagogy, in explaining the origin of education, relies on the teachings of the classics of Marxism-Leninism about the development of society and man as a natural and social being.
The main condition for the emergence of education was the labor activity of primitive people and the social relations formed at the same time. F. Engels in his classic work "The role of labor in the process of transformation of a monkey into a man" wrote: "labor created the man himself." The biological prerequisites for the formation of man could serve as the basis for the transition from the animal state to the human state thanks to labor. Human society arose from the time when the manufacture of tools by man began.
The labor activity of primitive people, aimed at satisfying their natural needs for survival and reproduction, transformed the animal into man, created a human society in which the formation of man began to be determined by social laws. The use of primitive tools of labor and the ever-expanding and becoming more complex conscious manufacture of them entailed the need to transfer labor knowledge, skills and experience to the younger generations.
At first, this happened in the course of labor activity, all domestic and social life. In the future, education becomes a special sphere of human activity and consciousness.
World science offers several concepts of the origin of education. Two theories are traditional: evolutionary-biological (S. Letourneau, J. Simpson, A. Espinas) and psychological (P. Monroe). Representatives of the evolutionary-biological theory likened the educational activity of primitive people to the instinctive care for offspring, inherent in higher animals. P. Monroe explained the origin of education by the manifestation in children of unconscious instincts to imitate adults. These theories are united by the assertion that primitive education arose as a process of gradual adaptation of children to the then existing order of things. In this regard, P. Monroe wrote that "the world of primitive man is concentrated in the present. He has almost no consciousness of the past and future. His upbringing is only adaptation to the environment."
Some modern researchers, supporting the thesis of continuity between the forms of rational activity of some higher animals and humans, focus on the qualitative social characteristics that distinguished the initial stage of human education as a special type of activity.
Conclusion. A number of concepts of bourgeois scientists about the origin of education were created under the influence of vulgar evolutionary ideas about human development, which leads to ignoring the social essence of education, to the biologization of the educational process. The Soviet history of pedagogy, in explaining the origin of education, relies on the teachings of the classics of Marxism-Leninism about the development of society and man as a natural and social being. World science offers several concepts of the origin of education. Two theories are traditional: evolutionary-biological (S. Letourneau, J. Simpson, A. Espinas) and psychological (P. Monroe). Representatives of the first theory likened the educational activity of primitive people to the instinctive care for offspring, inherent in higher animals. P. Monro explained the origin of education in the second theory by the manifestation in children of unconscious instincts to imitate adults. These theories were united by the fact that primitive education arose as a process of gradual adaptation of children to the then existing order of things.
1.2 The origin of education as a special type of activity
Many millennia separate us from the time when a man of the modern physical type appeared on Earth. This period (35 - 40 thousand years ago) also includes the emergence of education as a special type of human activity.
The meaning of the existence of primitive man was predetermined by his worldview: the surrounding world was perceived as something alive, endowed with consciousness. Therefore, the goals of upbringing that arose spontaneously assumed preparation for the simplest form of existence and awareness of the world as an animistic phenomenon. The rudiments of pedagogical thought developed only at the level of everyday consciousness as a reflection of the practice of education, manifesting itself in traditions and folk art.
Education originated in an integrative, syncretic form and contributed to the physical, mental and moral-emotional maturation of primitive man. The content and methods of education became more complicated as social experience was enriched and consciousness developed. Without performing any special function, it accompanied the entire process of transferring life experience. In this form, education arose 2 - 3 million years ago, in the era of the separation of man from the animal world, which was accompanied by a transition to the conscious transfer of the experience of gathering and hunting. It was vital for the ancestors of people to know edible plants well, the terrain, the habits of animals, to be strong, hardy. Speech, which arose as a communication tool, served as a powerful tool in the transfer of such experience. Gradually, education as a process of transferring experience acquired the features of a special type of activity and was oriented primarily to the daily struggle for survival.
The prerequisite and essential factor in the formation of education as a type of activity was the evolution of material ties between people of the primitive era, the need to maintain and develop such ties through the transfer of experience from person to person, from generation to generation. Education arose out of people's need for communication as a consequence of the evolution of forms of primitive labor, since the gradual complication of production experience required a certain organization of its assimilation.
The main condition for the existence of primitive people was the manufacture and use of tools. The elders had to pass on the relevant experience to the children. Therefore, the role of adults in organizing the education of children, as labor and tools became more complex, became more and more significant.
Such training laid the foundation for education in primitive society.
At the dawn of human history, the basis of education was a group, collective principle. Sex and age of children in primitive society were practically the only indicators in the differentiation of education.
Primitive education prepared everyone equally for everyday life, as it flowed from the communal way of life, nourishing and cementing this way of human existence. However, such an existence is primarily a consequence of the entire life of primitive man, and only in part is the result of special pedagogical influence.
With the advent of a person of a modern physical type, a new stage began in the genesis of education.
In 9-8 millennia BC. e. in a number of regions of the world, in particular in Asia Minor, Western and Central Asia, there is a social and property stratification of primitive society. The family becomes the main social unit. Such processes have qualitatively changed the meaning and content of education.
From a universal, equal, community-controlled upbringing, it turned into a class-family one. Children were brought up, first of all, by the example of their parents. The education of representatives of various strata - leaders, priests, warriors, other members of the community - acquired noticeable differences. In the families of the elite, the period of childhood has increased and, accordingly, the educational impact on the younger generation has increased.
Children, according to their parents, by imitation perceived the experience and information of their predecessors. This experience was judged as mystery and magic. That is why actions related to education were given a magical meaning. Among the Hottentots, for example, mothers cast witchcraft spells over the child so that he would grow up to be a strong and dexterous hunter. A magical meaning was attached to the moral edifications of parents. So, among the Australian natives, a child was lightly beaten with a fried centipede on the leg and sentenced: "Be kind, do not take someone else's."
Conclusion. 35 - 40 thousand years ago, education originated as a special kind of human activity. Education arose out of people's need for communication as a consequence of the evolution of forms of primitive labor, since the gradual complication of production experience required a certain organization of its assimilation. Without performing any special function, it accompanied the entire process of transferring life experience. With the advent of a person of a modern physical type, a new stage began in the genesis of education.
1.3 The emergence of organized forms of education
People of the primitive era used certain didactic techniques in the transfer of experience. Techniques were developed under the influence of living conditions, and therefore the initial forms and methods of education were of a primitive, unconscious nature. The children were shown what and how to do: how to wield a stick, dress the skins of dead animals, find and collect edible plants, etc. The main method of emotional and psychological influence of adults on the younger ones was mechanical repetition.
Time passed, and a person from adapting to nature more and more often switched to influencing the world around him. As his life became more complex, the tasks and methods of transferring social experience changed. The rudiments of organized forms of education appear, which are gradually concentrated in the hands of persons specially appointed for this.
In primitive communities of hunters and gatherers, the period of childhood and upbringing was very short (nine to eleven years). The youngest boys and girls were placed under the care of women, who taught them the first skills of labor activity: children spent a lot of time in games that imitated the life of adults. At the same time, the elders and clergy ensured that the children did not violate the prohibitions established by the community.
Growing up, the boys spent more time with men, learned to hunt, fish, etc. Women taught teenage girls about housekeeping.
In the early primitive era, the impact of education was minimal. Small members of the community were given considerable freedom in behavior. The punishments were not severe. In the worst case, this could be spanking or threats of physical punishment (for example, hitting the child's footprints with a stick in his presence). But primitive upbringing was not and could not be idyllic, since people lived in difficult, difficult conditions of the struggle for survival. In the future, the situation changes. The stratification of the community and the intensification of social antagonism have hardened it. Physical punishment was often used.
At the end of the primitive communal period, original youth houses for children and adolescents appeared. Where the main form of education was joint games and activities. Under the conditions of matriarchy, up to 7-8 years old, boys and girls were brought up together under the guidance of women, at an older age - separately. Under the patriarchal-tribal system, youth houses for girls and boys become separate. The upbringing of boys completely passes to the elders and priests. As the property stratification, separate youth houses appear - for the poor and for the wealthy members of the community. They existed, for example, among the Aztec and Mayan tribes (America), the Majori tribe (New Zealand) at the stage of decomposition of the patriarchal community.
All adolescents of both sexes, who reached the age of 10-15, underwent initiation - the procedure of initiation into adults. The initiation preparation program for boys included the acquisition of knowledge and practical skills necessary for a hunter, farmer, warrior, etc., and the program for girls included teaching housekeeping. Memorization of instructions, consolidation of certain skills were accompanied by pain from a blow, pinch, injection of a mentor.
Conclusion. As life became more complex, the tasks and methods of transferring social experience changed. Forms of education are gradually concentrated in the hands of persons specially appointed for this purpose. Small members of the community were given considerable freedom in behavior. The punishments were not harsh. At worst, it could be spanking or threats of physical punishment. At the end of the primitive communal period, original youth houses for children and adolescents appeared.
2. Education in a primitive society
2.1 Education in a primitive society
At the first stage of the development of primitive society - in the prenatal society - people appropriated the finished products of nature and were engaged in hunting. The process of obtaining a livelihood was in its own way simple and at the same time laborious. Hunting for large animals, hard struggle with nature could be carried out only in the conditions of collective forms of life, labor and consumption. Everything was common, there were no social differences between the members of the team.
Social relations in primitive society coincide with those of consanguinity. The division of labor and social functions in it was based on natural biological foundations, as a result of which there was a division of labor between men and women, as well as an age division of the social collective.
The prenatal society was divided into three age groups: children and adolescents; full and full participants in life and work; elderly people and old people who no longer have the physical strength to fully participate in common life (at further stages in the development of the primitive communal system, the number of age groups increases).
A born person first fell into the general group of those growing up and aging, where he grew in communication with peers and old people, wiser by experience. It is interesting that the Latin word educare literally means “pull out”, in a broader figurative meaning “to grow”, respectively, the Russian “education” has its root “nourish”, its synonym is “feed”, whence “feeding”; in ancient Russian writing, the words "education" and "nursing" are synonyms.
Having entered the appropriate biological age and having received some communication experience, work skills, knowledge of the rules of life, customs and rituals, a person moved to the next age group. Over time, this transition began to be accompanied by so-called initiations, “initiations”, i.e. tests during which the preparation of young people for life was tested: the ability to endure hardships, pain, show courage, endurance.
In prenatal society, one of the driving forces of human development is also the biological mechanisms of natural selection and adaptation to the environment. But as society develops, the social laws that take shape in it begin to play an increasingly important role, gradually taking a dominant place.
In a primitive society, the child was brought up and trained in the course of his life, participation in the affairs of adults, in everyday communication with them. He was not so much preparing for life, as it became later, as he was directly involved in the activities available to him, together with his elders and under their guidance he was accustomed to collective work and life. Everything in this society was collective. Children also belonged to the whole family, first maternal, then paternal. In work and everyday communication with adults, children and adolescents learned the necessary life skills and labor skills, got acquainted with customs, learned to perform the rituals that accompanied the life of primitive people, and all their duties, completely subordinate themselves to the interests of the family, the requirements of the elders.
Boys participated together with adult men in hunting and fishing, in the manufacture of weapons; girls, under the guidance of women, harvested and cultivated crops, cooked food, made dishes and clothes.
At the last stages of the development of matriarchy, the first institutions for the life and education of the growing people appeared - youth houses, separate for boys and girls, where, under the guidance of the elders of the family, they prepared for life, work, "initiations".
At the stage of the patriarchal tribal community, cattle breeding, agriculture, and handicrafts appeared. In connection with the development of the productive forces and the expansion of people's labor experience, upbringing became more complicated, which acquired a more versatile and planned character. Children were taught to care for animals, farming, crafts. When the need arose for a more organized upbringing, the tribal community entrusted the upbringing of the younger generation to the most experienced people. Along with arming children with labor skills and abilities, they introduced them to the rules of the emerging religious cult, legends, and taught them to write. Tales, games and dances, music and songs, all folk oral art played a huge role in the education of morals, behavior, certain character traits.
As a result of further development, the tribal community became a "self-governing, armed organization" (F. Engels). The rudiments of military education appeared: the boys learned to shoot from a bow, use a spear, ride a horse, etc. A clear internal organization appeared in the age groups, leaders stood out, the program of “initiations” became more complicated, for which specially selected elders of the clan prepared the youth. More attention was paid to the assimilation of the rudiments of knowledge, and with the advent of writing and writing.
Conclusion. The implementation of education by special people singled out by the tribal community, the expansion and complication of its content and the test program with which it ended - all this testified that under the conditions of the tribal system, education began to stand out as a special form of social activity. Relations between members of one age group and relations with members of another group were regulated by unwritten, loosely performed customs and traditions that reinforced the emerging social norms.
2.2 Education during the decay of primitive society
With the advent of private property, slavery and the monogamous family, the decay of primitive society began. There was an individual marriage. The family has become one of the most important social phenomena, the main economic unit of society; the functions of raising children have been transferred to it from the tribal community. Family education has become a mass form of education. But “youth houses” continued to exist, and schools began to emerge.
The emerging dominant groups of the population (priests, leaders, elders) sought to separate mental education from training in occupations that require physical labor. Ruling groups have concentrated the rudiments of knowledge (measuring fields, predicting floods of rivers, methods of treating people, etc.) in their hands, making them their privilege. To teach this knowledge, special institutions were created - schools that were used to strengthen the power of leaders, priests, and elders. So, in ancient Mexico, the children of noble people were freed from physical labor, studied in a special room and studied such sciences that were not known to the children of ordinary people (for example, pictographic writing, stargazing, area calculations). It elevated them above the rest.
Physical labor became the lot of the exploited. In their families, children were early accustomed to work, parents passed on their experience to them. Organized education of children, carried out in schools, became more and more the lot of the elite.
Conclusion. During the period of decomposition of primitive society, not only education in the family became important, but also education outside the home. This led to the establishment of schools. But children from wealthy families had the right to study in schools (division of the community into classes). The lot of the rest was physical labor.
Conclusion
Primitive society - the historical period of human society between the prehistoric world and the ancient world.
In the history of human society, primitive society occupies a fairly significant period of time - several millennia. It has gone through several periods in its development.
For a long time there were two periods of matriarchy and patriarchy. It was believed that at the beginning there was a matriarchy, that is, a maternal clan, in which a woman dominated, and in which kinship was conducted through the maternal line. Matriarchy is replaced by patriarchy, with which the decomposition of primitive society begins. In modern science, this periodization is criticized, and some scientists believe that matriarchy took place only among some peoples, in addition, matriarchy is regarded as a dead end path of development.
As a result of further development, the tribal community became a "self-governing, armed organization." The institution of the family becomes important.
Education overcomes a long and thorny path of development from family traditions and skills to general educational institutions (although not for everyone). Education arose out of people's need for communication as a consequence of the evolution of forms of primitive labor, since the gradual complication of production experience required a certain organization of its assimilation. Without performing any special function, it accompanied the entire process of transferring life experience. And over time, family education has become a mass form of education. Youth houses and schools appeared. But along with the development of education, there is also a division of society into classes of the poor and the rich, which leads to the inability to receive school education for "children of slaves." Their education remains at the level of family skills of physical labor.
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3. Educational activities of the teacher: textbook. allowance for students. universities /I.A. Kolesnikova and others. M.: Academy, 2011. 312 p.
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1.2.2. The nature of education in primitive society
All members of the primitive collective (genus, tribe) were divided into three age groups: 1) children and adolescents; 2) adult men and women, full participants in life and work; 3) the elderly and the elderly. Since in the primitive collective social relations coincided with those of consanguinity (genus is not only an economic unit, but, above all, a collective of relatives), the upbringing of children was considered the business of the entire collective. Thus, education in a primitive society did not imply the presence of teachers as a special professional group- every adult and elderly person could and should act as an educator.
The transition of adolescents aged 11-15 to the “adult” age group was accompanied by so-called initiations (“initiations”), which consisted of a series of various tests preceded by special training. Researchers consider initiations as the first public institution that aimed at the deliberate organization of the educational process. Those who had undergone initiation were considered prepared for labor, religious ritual, everyday life and marriage.
Sexual differentiation also manifested itself in initiation rites. The young men in the process of testing had to show dexterity, endurance, ingenuity, demonstrate the ability to endure pain and hardship, knowledge of ritual songs and dances that accompanied such "male" activities as hunting, protecting family members from numerous dangers. Girls, as a rule, were not subjected to difficult tests. They were only forced to observe some food prohibitions, explained to them how they should behave when entering into marriage, taught them songs and myths, and performed various religious ceremonies on them.
The spiritual and moral life of primitive society was determined by the mythological nature of people's consciousness and the peculiarities of the religion that existed at that time - animism (from lat. anima, animus - soul, spirit), which was characterized by the animation of nature and faith in the souls of ancestors. Thanks to the animation of the surrounding world, a person felt himself a part of it and behaved in such a way as not to violate the natural order established by nature. Therefore, the most essential part of knowledge was knowledge about nature. Children were brought up in harmony with nature, they were instilled with respect for everything that surrounds them.
Orientation on the ground, signs associated with predicting the weather, knowledge of the habits of animals, the beneficial and harmful properties of plants, the characteristics of various minerals were vital to any member of primitive society. Thus, the rudiments of physical (invention of the lever, bow) and chemical (processing of plants and various natural materials) knowledge, astronomy (orientation by the Sun and stars), medicine, and pharmacology accumulated empirically. Knowledge that required generalized abstract representations developed more slowly, which was reflected in the language. So, there were collective designations for trees, shrubs, grass, but there was no designation for plants in general.
Knowledge about the surrounding world was transmitted in the form of myths, where they were contained in an “encrypted” form and were based on religious ideas, empirical experience, and a system of recommendations and prohibitions. The carriers and translators of myths were, as a rule, elderly people.
From time immemorial, the Saami have considered the Earth a living being: turf is its skin, tundra mosses and grasses are its hair. Hammering a peg into the ground, digging a hole was tantamount to hurting her. “You can’t do this unless absolutely necessary,” the Sami said. “If you offend the earth, you won’t avoid trouble ...” - “Primitive superstition!” - brushed aside modern people who studied higher mathematics at the institute. They went to the tundra on all-terrain vehicles and tractors, which tore the fragile earth cover with their caterpillars. And now here we are grabbing our heads: it turns out that the nature of the Far North is unusually vulnerable, and where the all-terrain vehicle passed once, a terrible ravine soon appears. Meanwhile, the Saami have always known this, and wisdom does not cease to be wisdom, no matter what language it is expressed in.
The low level of economic development determined the need to unite people in order to jointly resist the harsh conditions of life. Man could survive only in a collective. It is no coincidence that expulsion from the tribe was considered the most terrible punishment. The primitive communal system is characterized by the priority of the interests of the collective over the interests of the individual, a person has no value as an independent individual and is considered only as a member of the community.
In primitive society, a person was formed only in terms of his social functions - labor, family, religious, and one of the most important areas of education was the education of collectivism, the ability to subordinate one's interests to the interests of the family, to interact in everyday life and in extreme situations.
The researchers note that the attitude of adults towards children was exceptionally friendly; from a very early age, children began to reproduce this attitude in interaction with others. There were no violent, repressive methods of education. There was no need for punishment, since children, like adults, were directly included in the life of society.
Thus, the main features of education in primitive society are: education in the process of life; universal, equal, collective, community-controlled education; the connection of education with the direct interests and needs of children; the main teaching method is an example; lack of corporal punishment; mysticism and magic.
History of education and pedagogical thought. Part 1. From the birth of education in primitive society to the middle of the 17th century. : studies. allowance / ed. Academician of the Russian Academy of Education A.I. Piskunov. - M, 1997. - S. 23.
Education as a special kind of human activity appeared in primitive society about 40 - 35 thousand years ago. By this period, a reasonable person of the modern physical type (homo sapiens) appears on Earth. The life and upbringing of primitive man looked very primitive. A characteristic feature of primitive society was common labor and property, the absence of exploitation and classes, collective life, common children, and the absence of specially organized forms of education.
The purpose of education was to prepare the child to meet practical needs, that is, to master the simplest labor skills (hunting, fishing, making weapons and clothing, cultivating the land) and to include the younger generation in collective labor.
Education in a primitive society is conditionally divided into three independent periods: education in a prenatal society; upbringing in a tribal community; education in the period of decomposition of primitive society.
Education in prenatal society was extremely limited and primitive. It was collective, universal, spontaneous, unsystematic, utilitarian, applied. Children were common, belonged to the whole family, from childhood they actively participated in the life of the community. In work and everyday communication with adults, they acquired the necessary life skills and labor skills, got acquainted with customs, learned to perform religious rites.
The division of labor and social functions at the stage of prenatal society were based on a natural biological foundation, as a result of which there was a division of labor between men and women (a woman is a mother and keeper of the family hearth, a man is a breadwinner and a warrior). Therefore, the boys, along with adult men, went hunting and fishing, made tools and weapons, and protected the tribe from enemies. The girls, in turn, with experienced women were engaged in gathering, cooking, sewing clothes, guarding the hearth, etc.
The prenatal society was divided into three main age groups: children and adolescents; full and full participants in life and work (active and able-bodied members of the community); elderly and old people not participating in the active working life of society. Each age group was assigned special rules of conduct, rights and obligations.
The expansion of the labor experience of people, the appearance at a certain stage in the development of human society of cattle breeding, agriculture, crafts, which naturally led to the complication of the process of education, which acquired a more multifaceted and planned character in the tribal community. It was in the tribal community that an objective need arose for organized education, which began to stand out as a special form of social activity.
The tribal community entrusted the upbringing of the younger generation to the elderly, most experienced members of the community. At this stage, the volume and content of the transferred knowledge is expanding. Along with the involvement of children in labor activity, they are introduced to the rudiments of military and moral education, with the rules of a religious cult, they were taught the simplest letter.
The development of the modern world school is a multilateral, large-scale process.
The school is changing its appearance, approaching the level of social, political, pedagogical requirements of the era of technical and technological revolution. Among the important positive trends in the development of world pedagogy and schools are 1) a course towards the democratization of school systems; 2).differentiation of education; 3) humanistic orientation of education; 4).modernization of the classroom system.
In the second half of the 1900s. A wave of reforms swept through leading foreign countries, as a result of which education systems underwent important changes. The terms of compulsory free education have been extended, and there is an intermediate level between elementary and complete secondary schools. Upon completion of primary and incomplete secondary education, students are distributed into three main educational streams: a complete general education school, which focuses on theoretical training and further education at the university; secondary school with an emphasis on preparation for studying at a technical university; professional educational institutions.
School systems are characterized by the presence of private educational institutions. They are usually paid, and some of them are expensive and privileged. In the West, almost all private schools belong to congregations of various churches. In most leading countries of the world, public educational institutions are separated from the church and religion (USA, France, Japan). In these countries the teaching of religion is a private affair of the citizens. But in England and Germany, theology is included in the standard programs of general education.
In the leading countries of the world in the last quarter of the 20th century there was a sharp expansion of the network of higher education. The social composition of the students has noticeably changed, it has become more democratic. The content of university and non-university higher education programs is changing. The growth in the number of higher education institutions is also accompanied by negative costs, primarily a decrease in the quality of education. To solve this problem, the mechanism of state control over the activities of higher education is being reformed. In almost all leading countries of the world, the school is a priority object of financing.
Maintaining school education at a sufficiently high level is an important condition for the dynamic development of society. Foreign highly developed industrial states have achieved impressive success in schooling. They are steadily rising average (median) level of education.
School programs are subject to constant changes and adjustments.
Several types of curricula coexist in a comprehensive school. Traditional type - required programs. There are no more than ten compulsory courses in a general education school. Much more numerous special programs addressed to one or another part of the students: electives, elective courses, programs of special educational institutions. Individual programs can move from compulsory to special, depending on the purpose and levels of education, for example, vocational training programs. Along with this, the so-called integrative programs. A classic example of an integrative course is the science program in elementary school, which includes the beginnings of various knowledge.
In the second half of the XX century. The world school has embarked on reforms in its educational programs. These reforms are aimed at making education more flexible and capable of renewal. The "school explosion" (the emergence of a mass secondary school in the world's leading countries) prompted the development and creation of a qualitatively different system of education and training differentiation. The main form of differentiation is the distribution by different types of educational institutions, as well as into profiles and streams within one school, into groupings in the classroom.
By the end of the 20th century, the leading countries of the world saw the formation of an incomplete secondary educational institution, within the walls of which they began to differentiate education: a junior high school (USA and Japan), an integrated school (England), a general school (Germany), a single college (France) .
Interest in teaching gifted, talented children and adolescents has noticeably increased in the world school. There were special schools for the gifted. They teach more intensive programs. Education is designed to reveal the young talent, to help show abilities. In addition, so-called advanced classes are sometimes organized for talented children in regular schools. The policy of purposeful identification and training of talented schoolchildren is objectively necessary, since it contributes to the formation of the future color of the nation. More and more attention is being paid to the education of children with disabilities and children with negative mental development. This is an important activity of the modern school.
It should also be said about compensatory education. It was organized to eliminate poor progress, unsatisfactory preparation of students. The practice of compensatory education involves the cooperation of the school and the family, the involvement of specialists in psychology and orientation, and an individual approach. The features of such training are additional classes, low class occupancy, the presence of adaptation classes, repeated training in the same class, etc. The basis of education in modern school is the spiritual, moral formation of personality.
In the West, the so-called behavioral method of education. It provides for a free game environment, partnership of pupils and mentors.
Self-management of students is important for the education of independence and activity. The traditional form of student self-government- a system in which students help teachers maintain discipline in the classroom, coordinate extracurricular activities. Usually such a system takes the form of student councils.
Student self-government did not justify the hopes for a sharp improvement in the results of education. For this reason, it is replaced by school boards, which include students, teachers, parents, representatives of the administration and the public. The primary areas of their activity are the involvement of students in the current life of the school, the development of independence among students, the ability to defend their own views and requirements, and the development of a culture of communication. Important changes in education occurred in connection with planetary political changes. The scale of education in the spirit of peace has increased. Projects aimed at effective international education are being implemented. One of these projects is the educational institutions of the international baccalaureate, the purpose of which is to educate in the spirit of mutual understanding between peoples. In 1996, more than 600 educational institutions from 83 countries participated in the project.
The world school pays considerable attention to the education of political culture ( civic education). To do this, educational role-playing games ("Elections", "Strike", "Court", etc.) are included in the program, a large place in the educational process is given to socio-political disciplines. In France, Germany, Japan in the 1980s-1990s. a civics course was added to the high school curriculum.
In schools in many countries, special classes are held on moral education. Religion continues to occupy its place in moral education. Bans on confessional education do not mean a rejection of the universal ideals laid down in world religions.
In response to the needs of the time, new disciplines appear in the curricula of the world school, which are based on anti-drug, anti-alcohol, and environmental topics. The role of experimental schools as a center for searching for other content, forms, and methods of school education and upbringing has increased markedly. The organization of schools - pilots has become one of the important areas of state school policy.
In the second half of the XX century. a new important stage began in the introduction of technical means into the school, which are the fruits of the scientific and technological revolution, and then the technological revolution.
The latest technical means have become a prerequisite for the educational process. Among them, computers and video systems turned out to be a priority.
New technical teaching aids have proved their indispensability. They are one of the guarantees for the modernization of the educational process, they serve as a powerful source of information, as well as a means of self-education and adjustment of the classroom system.
Mass media play a huge role in education in the modern world - the so-called parallel school. Teachers consider it necessary to seriously consider the creative and destructive possibilities of the parallel school.