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The formation of inhibition in the process of child development. Conditional inhibition, types, meaning. Age features of internal inhibition. Types of conditioned inhibition of reflexes

In the process of teaching and educating a child, it is necessary to take into account that unconditioned (external) inhibition is most pronounced only in children under 3-4 years of age. N / A, if a 3-year-old kid wants to step into a puddle, it is useless to tell him "You can't!" But if you show him a beautiful flower, pay attention to the bird, the child can easily forget about what he wanted to do. Therefore, external inhibition is an important means of instilling good habits and skills in children in the first years of life.

Internal inhibition takes on a leading role only by the age of 6-7 years. It is especially important to teach the child to restrain (slow down) reflex activity, to teach to wait. Such training of inhibitory processes underlies the education of the child's rules of behavior in society, will teach him to reckon not only with his own desires, but also to respect the requirements of others.

Internal inhibition (differentiation) is of great importance for teaching a child to write, read, draw, etc.

Inhibition provides us with a subtle correction of our activity in accordance with the influences of the environment, "erasing" unnecessary, biologically inexpedient conditioned reactions and contributing to the formation of new ones.

Age features of conditioned reflex activity.

Stage I - Thoracic.

Conditioned reflexes begin to be developed on the first day after the birth of a child. However, they are formed with difficulty, after several dozen reinforcements, unstable. N / A, touching the cheek of the newborn causes the head to turn towards the touch and the appearance of sucking movements. On the 10-14th day, the tactile-labyrinth conditioned reflex (when taking the baby in his arms in the feeding position, he turns his head and makes sucking movements). The conditioned orientation reflex is formed in 2-4 months. However, all conditioned reflexes of the first 3 months, due to the immaturity of the cerebral cortex, are formed very slowly, after many reinforcements, and they are all unstable. By the end of the year, conditioned reflexes are manifested in relation to the time, situation, situation.



Unconditioned inhibition of conditioned reflexes is present from the first days after birth, and conditioned reflexes are developed gradually. However, all types of conditioned inhibition up to 6 months are very unstable. All conditioned reflexes are easily inhibited due to unconditioned inhibition.

Stage II - nursery.

A child in the 2nd year of life begins to move freely in space, the foundations of speech are laid in him. Unconditioned orienting reflex "What is?" during this period of life manifests itself as "What can be done with this?" The rapid development of the child leads to the formation of a large number of new conditioned reflexes. The child develops images of objects. The formation of images is possible only as a result of the child's minipulations with objects, during which he learns the whole complex of stimuli characteristic of a given object (eg, a Christmas tree, its appearance, smell, needle pricks create an image of a Christmas tree that is different from all other objects). The child cannot be limited in his manipulations with objects, otherwise there will be impoverishment in the development of conditioned reflexes, a slowdown in the formation of figurative thinking.

On the basis of images, concepts begin to form, i.e. generalization of images of the same type (doll, cube).

In this period, the first imitative conditioned reflexes and extrapolation are developed. So, a child can calmly look at a dog standing far away, but is frightened if the dog begins to approach him.

For the first time, dynamic stereotypes are being developed, and their breaking is accompanied by a pronounced negative biological reaction.

Stage III - preschool.

During this period, a solid base of conditioned reflexes is already created. The child asks a huge number of questions, tries to get into the essence of phenomena and objects. At this time, reflexes of higher orders (up to the 6th order) are easily formed. Imitative reflexes are greatly developed. One of the features in the formation of conditioned reflexes is the speed of their formation - faster than at any other stage of development.

Conditioned inhibition is all developed with difficulty.

Stage IV - primary school age.

A characteristic feature of this stage is the formation of various complexes, systems from previously developed conditioned reflexes. A large number of dynamic stereotypes are formed. By the end of the stage of differentiation, they form easily, become strong.

Delayed braking at the end of the stage is quite easy to develop. At this stage, conditioned reflexes are developed quickly, easily, become persistent and resistant to unconditioned inhibition. In connection with the intensification of inhibition processes, cortical inhibitory control over emotions and the implementation of unconditioned reactions due to the development of inhibitory conditioned reflexes are well developed. All this is important for the education of the correct behavior of children.

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Literature

1. Characteristics of conditioned reflexes

inhibition conditioned reflex children

Those reflex reactions that can ensure the existence of an organism only with a relative constancy of the surrounding (and also internal for the organism) environment, I.P. Pavlov called unconditioned reflexes. And since the conditions of existence are very complex, changeable and diverse, the adaptation of the organism to the environment must be provided with the help of a different kind of reactions that would allow the organism to adequately respond to all changes in the environment. These reactions were called conditioned reflexes by I.P. Pavlov.

A detailed study of conditioned reflexes made it possible to reveal the basic laws of the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition, which determine the adaptive activity of the organism. The manifestation of various aspects of higher nervous activity depends on the properties of the basic nervous processes, a certain set of which characterizes certain individual characteristics of behavior.

In higher animals and humans, the necessary substrate for the formation of conditioned reflexes is the cerebral cortex.

The rules for the formation of conditioned reflexes. Long-term experience of Pavlovsk laboratories allowed specialists to single out the following rules for the formation of conditioned reflexes as the main ones.

1. For the formation of conditioned reflexes, it is necessary to coincide in time (combination) of some indifferent stimulus (conditioned) with the stimulus causing the corresponding unconditioned reflex (unconditioned stimulus).

2. It is necessary that the action of the conditioned stimulus somewhat precedes the action of the unconditioned.

3. The conditioned stimulus should be physiologically weaker than the unconditioned stimulus and possibly more indifferent, that is, not causing a significant reaction. The physiological strength, for example, of an unconditioned food reflex (salivary or otherwise) is determined by the level of food motivation. The physiological strength of the protective-defensive unconditioned reflex, which eliminates the threat to the very existence of the organism, is undoubtedly higher than the unconditioned food reflex. The indifference of the conditioned stimulus is that it should not cause an unconditioned reflex used as a reinforcement.

4. For the formation of a conditioned reflex, a normal, active state of the brain is necessary.

5. During the formation of a reflex, other types of activity should be excluded as a response to extraneous stimuli.

Using the well-known salivary conditioned reflex as an example in Pavlov's laboratories, the following general signs of conditioned reflexes were determined.

1. Their adaptive nature. The meaning of a conditioned reflex is that it makes behavior especially plastic, adjusted to specific environmental conditions (time, place, quality of reinforcement, etc.).

2. Any conditioned reflexes are formed with the participation of the higher parts of the brain (and in insects, for example, the higher cerebral ganglia). Therefore, the adaptive reactions of protozoa or coelenterates (deprived, as is known, of the central nervous system) cannot be classified as conditioned-reflex reactions.

3. Conditioned reflexes are acquired and canceled in the individual life of each specific individual. In this they are fundamentally different from unconditioned reflexes, which are equally manifested in all individuals of a given species and in a certain mayor are genotypically determined. The bulk of conditioned reflexes are formed only when combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are repeated. In other words, not all random coincidences of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are recorded in the individual memory in the form of conditioned reflex reactions, but only those whose combination in time turns out to be the most probable. All other, randomly formed connections are inhibited. However, if the probability of receiving reinforcement (food or sexual, for example) by this signal becomes close to zero, such conditioned reflexes are gradually canceled, because they cease to act as a factor in the organization of purposeful behavior.

4. A conditioned reflex is of a signal nature, that is, it always precedes, prevents the subsequent emergence of an unconditioned reflex. The meaning of a conditioned reflex is to prepare the body for some biologically purposeful activity.

Thus, conditioned reflexes are individually acquired systemic adaptive reactions of animals and humans, arising on the basis of the formation in the central nervous system of a temporary connection between a conditioned (signal) stimulus and an unconditioned reflex act.

Classification of conditioned reflexes. There are several systems for classifying conditioned reflexes, each of which, naturally, cannot be considered exhaustive. Much in the assessment of these systems depends on the leading factors that underlie them.

1. Due to the fact that the basis of a conditioned reflex is unconditioned reinforcement, we will begin to consider the classification of conditioned reflexes from the characteristics of reinforcement. Depending on the presence or absence of reinforcement, conditioned reflexes are divided into positive(reinforced), eliciting an appropriate response from the body, and negative, or inhibitory (non-reinforced), which not only do not cause an appropriate response, but also weaken it. These reflexes will be specially considered in connection with the discussion of the processes of conditioned inhibition.

According to the biological meaning of reinforcement, conditioned reflexes are distinguished in accordance with the biological needs of animals and humans. Distinguish vital conditioned reflexes (food, defensive, sleep regulation, etc.), zoosocial conditioned reflexes (sexual, parental, territorial, etc.) and, finally, conditioned reflexes self-development(research, simulation, game, etc.).

The most common form of study of conditioned reflex mechanisms of behavior is conditioned reflexes on food and defensive reinforcement. Sometimes they separate into an independent group imitative(imitation) conditioned reflexes.

Any activity of the organism can serve as a reinforcement of a conditioned reflex. Therefore, rather roughly, it can be divided into two large groups: motor conditioned reflexes and vegetative conditioned reflexes. This division is, of course, relative, since the emphasis is on the nature of the recorded unconditioned reflex. For example, a motor conditioned reflex associated with the seizure of food is usually determined by the type of the corresponding movement (grasping, pecking, sucking, etc.). The classic salivary conditioned reflex belongs to autonomic conditioned reflexes. In practice, all internal organs can obey conditioned reflex control, although they manifest themselves in different ways for individual organs, they are produced and extinguished at different rates.

An independent group should include conditioned reflexes, which are reinforced by direct electrical (or chemical) stimulation of the brain. Such laboratory models can be useful for studying individual cerebral mechanisms of the conditioned reflex process.

Conditioned reflexes also differ in the characteristics of reinforcement. If an unconditioned reflex is used as a reinforcement, such a conditioned reflex is referred to as conditional reflexes the first order... If a previously developed strong conditioned reflex is used as a reinforcement, then such a new conditioned reflex is called conditional reflex second order... Accordingly, there may be conditioned reflexes of the third and subsequent orders. It is this type of conditioned reflexes that are formed in children and form the basis for the development of their mental activity (see Ch. 4).

2. The most important component of the conditioned reflex is conditional signal, that is, the actual receptor part of the conditioned reflex process. On this basis, conditioned reflexes are divided into two large groups: exteroceptive and interoceptive.

In accordance with which receptor devices the stimulus acts on, the following are distinguished exteroceptive conditioned reflexes: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, temperature. In addition, exteroceptive conditioned reflexes are divided into distant (visual, auditory, etc.) and contact (tactile, gustatory). These reflexes play a decisive role in human behavior and mental activity. Teaching verbal communication between people basically has specially human conditioned reflexes to verbal signals. Interoceptive Conditioned reflexes arise when an afferent volley from the internal organs that has entered the brain becomes a conditioned signal for certain changes in the vegetative sphere or in the motor activity of the whole organism.

By the nature of conditioned stimulation, conditioned reflexes are subdivided into natural and artificial... Natural conditioned reflexes include those that are formed in response to natural signs of unconditioned irritation. These include, for example, the smell of food.

According to the structure of the conditioned signal, the following four groups of conditioned reflexes are distinguished: a) conditioned reflexes to simple stimuli (bell, metronome, flashes of light, etc.); b) conditioned reflexes to simultaneous complex stimuli consisting of several components acting simultaneously (for example, light + sound + skin irritation); c) conditioned reflexes to successive complex stimuli, the individual components of which act sequentially, superimposed on each other, and d) conditioned reflexes to the chains of stimuli, when the individual components of a complex stimulus act sequentially, without coinciding with each other, and unconditioned reinforcement is attached to the last of them.

3. The most important feature for the classification of conditioned reflexes is ratio in time actions conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. On one basis, they distinguish: a) available conditioned reflexes, formed when the conditioned stimulus and reinforcement coincide in time, and b) trace conditioned reflexes, during the formation of which the conditioned stimulus and reinforcement are separated from each other by a certain time interval.

Thus, the above classification emphasizes a fairly wide range of conditioned reflex adaptation of higher organisms and makes the conditioned reflex one of the main phenomena of higher nervous activity.

2. Essence and features of the mechanism of inhibition of conditioned reflexes

For a long time, physiology lacked a theory that could explain the coordinated nature of behavior. Under these conditions, the discovery in 1862 by I.M.Sechenov central braking played a significant historical role. IM Sechenov considered central inhibition as the activity (excitation) of special inhibitory systems by analogy with the inhibitory effects of the vagus nerve on the heart, which were well studied by that time.

C. Sherrington (1906) developed the concept of active inhibition of antagonist muscles during the reflex act. According to him, in the motor center of the antagonist muscle, when the center of another muscle is excited, a state of inhibition arises by induction guidance. However, he did not go beyond stating the facts of the presence of induction relationships between the centers of the antagonist muscles.

AA Ukhtomsky (1923), relying on previous views, put forward the idea of ​​conjugate inhibition during the formation of a dominant. The central mechanisms of the most biologically significant reflex act are supported by various excitations converging to them, arising in the central nervous system, and, having reached a certain level of excitability, these central mechanisms, simultaneously with the start of the dominant reflex reaction, actively inhibit any other forms of reflexes that are biologically incompatible with it (1, p. .249).

Huge experimental experience allowed I.P. Pavlov to put forward his own scheme for classifying the types of inhibition during conditioned reflex activity.

External(unconditional)braking... The most common behavioral sign of inhibition is the absence of an expected specific reaction under the action of a threshold or even a suprathreshold stimulus, or the cessation of any current activity or an incipient motor or secretory reaction under the same conditions.

External inhibition is understood as an urgent suppression of the current conditioned reflex activity under the action of external stimuli for it, causing an orientation or some other unconditioned reflex.

According to the mechanism of its occurrence, this type of inhibition is classified as congenital, which is carried out due to the phenomena negative induction... IP Pavlov even suggested calling this type of inhibition induction. A.A. Ukhtomsky called it conjugate inhibition and saw in it the physiological basis for the realization of the dominant form of the body's activity. Unconditioned inhibition is also called external because the reason for its occurrence lies outside the structure of the inhibited reflex.

One of the factors causing unconditional inhibition is indicative reflex... Any unexpected extraneous stimulus contains information that is new to the body, and an orientation reflex is performed for its fuller perception (reflex “what is it?”, According to IP Pavlov). At the moment of the onset of this reflex, induction inhibition of competing reflexes occurs. It can be more or less deep, short-term or longer, depending on the physiological strength of the orienting and inhibited reflexes. However, repeated repeated irritation causes an orienting reflex of lower intensity, which then, due to habituation to this irritation, disappears altogether. At the same time, the effect of external braking gradually decreases. This type of braking has been called an extinguishing brake. The mechanisms of the fading brake develop simultaneously at different levels of the brain with the participation of the reticular system of the trunk (1, p. 250).

Another type of unconditioned inhibition is distinguished by the constancy of its effect on one or another inhibited reflex and is therefore called permanent brake... The stability of external inhibition is determined by the physiological strength of that reflex act, which becomes the main cause of this inhibition. These include defensive unconditioned reflexes to various harmful stimuli, including painful ones. External inhibition can also occur during the performance of a conditioned reflex, for example, a protective-defensive reflex.

As in the case of an extinguishing brake, the duration of the inhibitory action of a defensive reflex is determined by its strength and the nature of the inhibited reflex, and in particular by the degree of its hardening. "Young" conditioned reflexes are inhibited more easily and for a longer period than "older" ones under the same conditions. Painful effects from internal organs have a longer inhibitory effect on conditioned reflex activity. And sometimes their strength is so great that it distorts the normal course of even unconditioned reflexes.

So, two antagonistic reflex - food and defensive - not may coexist, more weak slows down under influence more strong. And the stronger this reflex, the more pronounced the induction inhibition of competing forms of reflex activity.

Unconditioned inhibition, which IP Pavlov examined by the example of specific reflexes, AA Ukhtomsky based on the existence of integral behavioral acts. Moreover, he emphasized that such a conjugate inhibition is not the destruction of all activities on the ground, but its processing, transformation in accordance with the direction of the dominant activity.

The transcendent(protective)braking... It is well known that if you increase the intensity of a stimulus, the effect it causes increases. However, this increase in response will be observed only up to a certain limit of the intensity of stimulation. Further increase in irritation will lead to a drop or complete disappearance of the effect. This is the result not of fatigue, but of transcendental inhibition, which I.P. Pavlov called protective, since it protects the brain cells from excessive consumption of energy resources. This type of braking depends on functional fortunes nervous systems, age, from typological features, fortunes hormonal spheres and NS. The limit of a cell's endurance in relation to stimuli of different intensities is called the limit of its efficiency, and the higher this limit, the easier the cell tolerates the action of superstrong stimuli. Moreover, we are talking not only about the physical, but also about the informational power (significance) of conditioned signals. For cortical cells, there is a limit of harmless functional stress followed by inhibition intervention. This type of inhibition has common features with both the unconditional and the conditional and occupies a kind of middle position between them.

An extreme case of transcendental braking is numbness that occurs in an animal and a person under the influence of severe irritation. A person can fall into a state of stupor - complete immobility. Such states arise not only as a result of the action of a physically strong stimulus (explosion of a bomb or a projectile, for example), but also as a result of severe moral upheavals (for example, with the unexpected report of a serious illness or death of a loved one).

Internal(conditional)braking... This form of inhibition of the current conditioned reflex activity includes those cases when the conditioned stimulus ceases to be reinforced by the unconditioned one. Such inhibition does not arise urgently, not immediately, but develops gradually, is developed according to the general laws of a conditioned reflex and is just as changeable and dynamic. I.P. Pavlov therefore called it conditional inhibition as opposed to unconditional. He believed that such developed inhibition occurs within the central nervous structures of the conditioned reflexes themselves, and hence its name - internal (that is, not induced from the outside, not inductive) inhibition. Whether this assumption is correct is still unknown.

Let's highlight the main characteristics of conditional inhibition.

1. As already emphasized, it develops when stimuli are not reinforced, which gradually acquire the properties of a conditioned inhibitory stimulus. IP Pavlov called the reinforced conditioned signal positive, and the corresponding reaction was called a positive conditioned reflex. An unsupported conditioned signal reduced the intensity of the reaction, and sometimes even suppressed it altogether, it was called negative signal... The corresponding behavior was termed negative (or inhibitory) conditional reflex.

2. Conditioned inhibition lends itself to training, which means that its development during a repeated procedure is facilitated. However, an inhibited conditioned reflex can spontaneously recover under the influence of both external and internal causes. This property of conditioned inhibition is extremely important in educating a child's behavioral skills at an early age.

3. The ability to various manifestations of conditioned inhibition depends on the individual properties of the nervous system of the organism. In excitable individuals, conditioned inhibition is developed more difficult and slower than in quieter individuals.

4. Conditioned inhibition depends on the physiological strength of the unconditioned reflex, which reinforces the positive conditioned signal.

5. Conditioned inhibition depends on the strength of the previously developed conditioned reflex. Stronger stable conditioned reflexes are much more difficult to inhibit than newly formed conditioned reflexes.

6. Conditional inhibition is able to interact with unconditioned, in these cases the phenomenon of disinhibition occurs, or, in other cases, as a result of the summation of conditional and unconditioned inhibition, their overall effect may increase.

I.P. Pavlov subdivided conditioned inhibition into four types (2).

Extinguishing inhibition develops in the absence of reinforcement of the conditioned signal by the unconditioned. Now the same stimulus becomes a signal of a lack of response. The degree and speed of the development of extinguishing inhibition depend on: 1) the strength of the conditioned reflex (more firmly developed reflexes are extinguished more slowly); 2) the physiological strength of the reinforcing reflex (it is much more difficult to extinguish the conditioned food reflex in a hungry dog ​​than in a well-fed one); 3) the frequency of non-reinforcement (with acute non-reinforcement, extinguishing inhibition develops within minutes and hours, with chronic non-reinforcement - during multi-day experiments). Food conditioned reflexes are extinguished much faster than the defensive ones. Motor defensive conditioned reflexes are especially difficult to suppress. Extinguishing inhibition is formed faster and more firmly during training (repeated extinction and recovery), while extinction of one reflex - (initially extinguished reflex) leads to a weakening or even disappearance of other reflexes (secondary extinguished reflexes). Fading inhibition develops in waves, and individual typological differences are observed in its development.

Differentiating braking develops when stimuli close to the reinforced signal are not reinforced. This type of inhibition is the basis for distinguishing stimuli that are similar in their physical properties. Let us note the following basic properties of differential inhibition: 1) the closer the differentiated stimuli, the more difficult it is to develop differential inhibition on one of them (unsupported); 2) the degree of inhibition is determined by the strength of arousal developed by a positive (reinforced) conditioned reflex. As in the case of extinguishing inhibition, differentiation inhibition is more easily developed with food reinforcement than with defensive reinforcement, easier in fed animals than in hungry ones; 3) the development of this inhibition occurs in waves; 4) Differential inhibition is trainable, which underlies the subtle recognition of sensory environmental factors.

I.P. Pavlov singled out as an independent type of conditioned inhibition conditional brake, which is formed when the combination of a positive conditioned stimulus and an indifferent one is not reinforced.

The main properties of a conditioned brake are as follows: 1) it is more easily developed if a strong additional stimulus, for example, a bell, is attached to a weak (light, for example) positive stimulus; 2) the role of a surplus stimulus can be played by a trace of an applied stimulus of sufficiently large strength. ; 3) if the additional stimulus has insufficient strength, then it can turn into a conditioned stimulus of the second order, that is, act as a positive signal of the main conditioned reflex; 4) if the surplus stimulus has acquired the properties of a conditioned inhibitor, then, being attached to any other positive signal, it will inhibit the conditioned reflex corresponding to this signal; 5) an additional stimulus at the first moment of its application in combination with a positive signal causes an orientation reflex and inductive inhibition of the conditioned reaction, then it turns into an indifferent stimulus (an extinguishing brake), and, finally, a conditioned brake develops at the site of unconditioned inhibition.

Braking delays... When this kind of conditioned inhibition is developed, reinforcement by the corresponding unconditioned reflex is not canceled (as in the previous types of inhibition), but is significantly moved away from the onset of the conditioned stimulus. Only the last period of the signal's validity is reinforced, and the significant period of its action that precedes it is deprived of reinforcement. Therefore, the first period of action of the conditioned signal, which is accompanied by inhibition of the delay, is called the inactive phase of the delayed conditioned reflex. After its expiration, inhibition stops and is replaced by excitement - the so-called active phase of the reflex. The adaptive meaning of lag inhibition consists in a subtle analysis of the time the stimulus lags behind; the conditioned reflex is more or less precisely timed to the time of action of the signaled unconditioned reflex.

Let us note the main properties of this type of conditioned inhibition: 1) the stronger the conditioned stimulus, the more difficult it is to develop delay inhibition; 2) the greater the strength of the reinforcing reflex, the more difficult it is to develop a delayed conditioned reflex; 3) the more slowly the isolated action of the conditioned stimulus lengthens from experiment to experiment, the easier it is to develop delay. If the reinforcement is immediately pushed back from the beginning of the action of the positive signal for 2-3 minutes, then the delay is extremely difficult to work out; 4) a significant strengthening of coinciding or shortly spaced conditioned reflexes prevents the development of retardation inhibition.

Although retardation inhibition differs from the other three types of conditioned inhibition due to the participation of the time factor, its development is also based on non-reinforcement of a certain period of the conditioned signal action.

Interactiondifferentspeciesbraking... The interaction of conditioned and unconditioned inhibition can occur most often in the form of the phenomenon of disinhibition, which has already been mentioned. Its essence lies in the fact that unconditioned inductive inhibition, which occurs during the orienting reflex, temporarily weakens or completely eliminates the effect of conditioned conditioned inhibition (extinguishing, differentiation, conditioned brake and delay inhibition).

Another direction of interaction of different types of inhibition is their summation. For example, the extinction of a conditioned reflex can be accelerated if, in addition to non-reinforcement, a moderate external stimulus is applied. There is a summation of conditional extinguishing and unconditional induction inhibition (3).

There are no less examples of summation of different types of conditional inhibition; say, the simultaneous training of extinguishing and retarded inhibition mutually reinforce each other. Or, in another case, one of the types of conditioned inhibition (for example, differentiation) is formed faster if it was preceded by a procedure with extinguishing inhibition training. The biological significance of the summation effect of inhibition is understandable if we bear in mind that inhibition training is one of the main conditions for the formation and education of behavioral skills of varying complexity. The very facts of the interaction of different types of inhibition are sufficient grounds to suggest their close physiological nature.

3. Features of the development of inhibition of conditioned reflexes in children

Inhibition of conditioned reflexes is possible from the first days of a child's life. Its first braking reactions are related to the external type of braking. In children of the first year of life, especially in newborns, both transcendental and induction inhibition easily occurs. A manifestation of inductive inhibition can be an orientation reflex, when, under the action of a new stimulus, the emerging focus of excitation inhibits other parts of the brain, which causes immobility, which is denoted by the term "freezing". However, with prolonged action of the stimulus, the orienting reaction is inhibited due to the development of transcendental inhibition. Immaturity of neurons in the cerebral cortex is the reason for the rapid onset of pessimal inhibition. Conditioned inhibition in the first years of a child's life is poorly developed, and with age, the strength of all types of internal inhibition, and, consequently, the rate of formation of negative conditioned connections, increase. Fading inhibition in children up to school age is difficult to develop.

So, under conditions of non-reinforcement, the period of preservation of the conditioned reaction in children 5-6 years old is 2 times longer than in children 11-12 years old, and 3 times longer than in adults. Children 4-6 years old need 40-60 non-reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus for the reaction to fade away, while at 10-16 years old it is enough 3-4 times not to reinforce the conditioned stimulus, especially in combination with verbal instruction. Delayed inhibition in preschool children develops only after several hundred combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, provided that all conditions for its production are met.

Differential inhibition depends on the degree of maturation of the analyzer systems. Therefore, with the development of these systems and the complication of inter-analytic connections, the rate of formation, differentiation inhibition increases, the subtlety and accuracy of differentiations increases, and the distinction is carried out according to a whole complex of features.

The variability in the timing of the appearance of differential inhibition in ontogeny is very high. So, some researchers note the possibility of differentiation by newborns of tones that are within one octave and differ by 80 Hz. Others say that the discrimination of 2 tones that differ by almost an octave is possible only at the 3rd month of life, and the discrimination of sound signals that differ by 5.5 tones is only at 5.5 months.

In preschool age, the differentiation of objects is already very well developed. It can be carried out according to a variety of indicators. However, the peculiarity of this process in preschool age is that the distinction is made mainly by visual, concrete, conspicuous signs. Differentiation and generalization of stimuli up to 4 years old occurs most often according to one feature: color, shape, etc. At 5-6 years old, due to the development of the integrative function of the brain, it is possible to differentiate according to 2-4 signs.

Significant signs for children 5-6 years old in comparison with children of an earlier age are the location of the figures in the picture shown, their number, size. However, the property of the higher nervous activity of children to distinguish objects by insignificant, but visual signs persists even at 7-10 years old, when, differentiating complex stimuli, for example, 2 pictures, pay attention to the arrangement of objects, and not to their number (A.N. Kabanov ).

The ability to isolate the main, essential component develops at a later age. In an adult, when a conditioned stimulus is replaced by a word denoting it (for example, the sound of a bell with the word "bell"), the same conditioned reflex reaction arises without preliminary elaboration as to the conditioned signal. In children 3-4 years old, such a replacement turns out to be ineffective: there are no reactions to a word replacing a conditioned signal. The ability to respond to a verbal stimulus replacing a conditioned signal, as well as to the signal itself, develops gradually. It becomes pronounced only at the age of 6-7 years.

Along with relatively constant forms of response to stable external and internal influences (unconditioned reflexes), there is another type of reactions that allow the body to adequately respond to all changes in the environment (conditioned reflexes). Conditioned reflexes are formed when some indifferent (conditioned) stimulus and stimulus causing an unconditioned reflex coincide in time and space. The main meaning of a conditioned reflex is in its signaling (warning character) and adaptability (adaptive character). Conditioned reflexes are divided according to the features of unconditioned reinforcement, conditioned signal, or by the temporal relationship of both signals.

IP Pavlov developed a classification of the phenomena of inhibition of conditioned reflexes. To external (unconditional) braking, he attributed the dying and permanent brakes, as well as transcendental braking. In the first two cases, conditioned reflexes are inhibited by the action of orienting or painful stimuli. Internal (conditioned) inhibition, which occurs as a result of non-reinforcement of a conditioned signal by an unconditioned reflex, includes extinguishing inhibition, differentiation, delays, and a conditioned brake. Apparently, the similarity of the physiological nature of different types and types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes does not exclude differences in their neurophysiological mechanisms.

Inhibition of conditioned reflexes begins to form already in newborns: differentiation inhibition (3-4 months), a conditioned brake at the 5th month, delayed inhibition at the 6th month, i.e. by the end of the first year of life, all types of internal inhibition are developed.

Literature

1. Batuev A.S. Higher nervous activity: a textbook for universities / A.S. Batuev. Saint Petersburg: Lan, 2002.416 p.

2. Kabanov A. N. Anatomy, physiology and hygiene of preschool children. Kabanov, A. P. Chabovskaya. M .: Education, 1989.288 p.

3. Leontyeva NN Anatomy and physiology of the child's body: (Fundamentals of the doctrine of the cell and the development of the body, nervous system, musculoskeletal system): textbook for universities. 2nd ed. Moscow: Education, 1986.287 p.

4. Smirnov V.M. Neurophysiology and higher nervous activity of children and adolescents: textbook for universities / V.M. Smirnov. M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2004. 400 p.

5. Smirnov V.M. Physiology of the central nervous system: textbook for universities / V.M. Smirnov, D.S. Sveshnikov, V.N. Yakovlev. M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2006. 368 p.

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    term paper added 12/18/2012

    Interaction of a living organism and the environment. Sensitivity as a property that reflects the influence of the external and internal environment. The concept of unconditioned chain reflexes. Education and skills development. The psyche as a product of the activity of the brain.

    abstract, added 09/04/2009

    Brief biography of I.P. Pavlova and his experimental work on the development of a conditioned reflex, revealing the dynamic connections between the stimulus and the reaction of the individual. Justification of the experiment: conditions, excitation, inhibition and inheritance of reflexes.

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "MPGU"

Abstract on the discipline "Age anatomy, physiology and hygiene" on the topic:

Types of conditional inhibition. Features of conditioned inhibition in children.

Completed:

1st year student,

115 group Murshudov R.T.

Checked by: Associate Professor

Tupitsina L.P.

Moscow 2014

1. Types of conditioned inhibition of reflexes …………………………………………… 3

1.1. Peculiarities of conditioned inhibition in children ……………………………… 5

2. List of literature ……………………………………………………………………… ..7

Types of conditioned inhibition of reflexes

Conditioned reflexes are not only developed, but also disappear under certain conditions. IP Pavlov distinguished two types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes: unconditioned and conditioned.

Conditioned (internal) inhibition is characteristic only of the cells of the cerebral cortex. This inhibition, like conditioned reflexes, is developed. The main condition for the manifestation of internal inhibition is the non-reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned one. For example, if a dog has developed a strong salivary conditioned reflex to light, and then apply the conditioned signal (light) many times in isolation without reinforcement (without giving food), then salivation gradually decreases and finally stops. The conditioned reflex has died out - extinguishing inhibition. Reinforcement of a conditioned signal by an unconditioned stimulus restores the conditioned reflex. However, even in the absence of reinforcement, the conditioned reflex can reappear after rest, in the presence of positive emotions. This phenomenon is called disinhibition of conditioned reflexes. Fragile newly developed conditioned reflexes fade away faster and easier. Due to extinguishing inhibition, the body is freed from unnecessary conditioned reflexes that have lost their signal value.

Due to the inhibition of conditioned reflexes, an accurate and perfect adaptation of the organism to the conditions of existence, balancing is achieved.

There are three types of acquired inhibition.

Extinguishing inhibition occurs when the conditioned reflex is not reinforced by the unconditioned one, if the signal ceases to correspond to what it signaled. Many times the light of the lamp was accompanied by feeding, but now the light is given - and there is no food. With a sufficient number of such unsupported combinations, the temporary connection will enter a state of internal inhibition, and the animal will stop responding to light with a food reaction. However, the temporary connection is not completely destroyed, but only slows down. The extinguished reflex during reinforcement can be quickly restored.

The biological significance of extinguishing inhibition lies in the fact that the animal does not develop useless activity in response to signals that are not accompanied by unconditioned reflexes. It is easy to imagine what it would be like if all conditioned reflexes formed at different times, which ceased to correspond to the new conditions, remained for life. Then a hungry dog, for example, would run for a long time "according to old memory" to an empty house, whose tenants once fed it. Or a fox that went out to hunt would uselessly sit by some empty hole of a gopher. Higher nervous activity is freed from obsolete and useless conditioned connections through their extinction. People part with outdated views when it turns out that the life going forward does not support their earlier ideas.

Differential, or discriminatory, inhibition develops if one signal is reinforced with food or other important stimuli, and the other is not. The signal that is not reinforced, as a result of extinguishing inhibition, will gradually begin to elicit less and less reaction, which will finally stop altogether. The signal being reinforced will continue to elicit a conditioned response. As a result, the animal will respond to one stimulus with an action, and the second by refusing to act. Differential inhibition is caused by an irritant similar to a conditioned signal, but not associated with the events that it warns about.

Lagged inhibition occurs when reinforcement is given late. After some training, the response to the conditioned stimulus does not occur immediately, but only after the onset of the conditioned signal, at the time of receiving food or other biologically important influence. Under natural conditions, such inhibition can be observed in a cat that lies in wait for a mouse or bird. A cat can sit motionless for many minutes and even hours. The appearance of a rodent does not cause an immediate reaction in the cat. She is delayed until the most convenient moment. Thanks to lagging braking, a predator can act with a great chance of success.

All types of conditioned inhibition are of great importance in human life. Endurance and self-control, accurate recognition of objects and phenomena around us, and finally, precision and clarity of movements are impossible without braking.

There is every reason to believe that inhibition is based not simply on the suppression of conditioned reflexes, but on the development of special inhibitory conditioned reflexes. The central link of such reflexes is the inhibitory nerve connection. A conditioned inhibitory reflex is often called negative, as opposed to a positive conditioned reflex.

Inhibition of an undesirable reaction is associated with a large waste of energy. Competing irritations, as well as other causes associated with the physical condition of the body, can weaken the inhibition process and lead to disinhibition. When the brake is released, actions appear that were previously eliminated by the braking processes.

The fact of the existence of excitement and inhibition is indisputable. Thanks to these processes, all higher nervous activity is carried out.

Features of conditioned inhibition in children

In children, conditioned inhibition develops quite early. Internal inhibition is developed, formed in the process of individual life. The formation of internal inhibition is a complex nervous process that requires a lot of nervous tension. The formation of an inhibitory conditioned reflex passes through the so-called "difficult state" (P.K. Anokhin), which arises as a result of non-reinforcement of a previously established reflex.
The earliest forming type of internal inhibition in a child is "extinction", a striking example of which is, for example, the extinction of the reflex "to the position under the breast." This "extinction" occurs because often the child was taken in his arms in the "position under the breast", but they did not feed, but talked to him, walked around the room, etc. Therefore, the previously formed conditioned reaction in the form of sucking movements to the "position under breastfeeding "fades away as irrational.
Instead, a more accurate adaptation to the surrounding conditions is formed. For example, a child has developed a habit of taking away a toy he likes from another child with impunity. If an adult takes this toy away from the child and gives it to the offended, the child will cry loudly, become excited. If the child knows that the taken away toy will never remain with him, then he will stop taking it away - the desire to take away the toy is inhibited.
Thus, in the process of a child's development, many previously formed reflexes fade away, being replaced by others more appropriate to the new conditions of life. When raising young children, they often use this ability of "extinction" in the case when it is necessary to wean the child from any negative habit, for example, from motion sickness.
Previously educated positive forms of behavior may also fade away. For example, a previously formed cleanliness skill can fade away in a hospital if this skill is not maintained. The need for communication may also fade if the child's messages are not receiving positive reinforcement from adults.
At the end of the 3rd or 4th month, another type of internal inhibition is also formed - differentiation, for example, into color - a distinction between two colors (for example, green and yellow from red). It is just as early to form a differentiation into the shape of an object, for example, to distinguish a cube from a sphere.
Recognition of the mother, in contrast to strangers, is the formation of visual differentiation, the recognition of the mother's voice is auditory differentiation. Both are observed in the 5th month of life. At first, the child distinguishes objects that are sharply contrasting in their external qualities, later the differentiation becomes more and more subtle. If a child was given a bitter medicine from a teaspoon, then after several doses he screams and turns away at the sight of this spoon, although the child reaches out to the dessert spoon from which he received food.
In the 1st year of life, a third type of inhibition also appears - "delay", that is, the conditioned reaction does not occur immediately, but with some delay. An example would be the following behavior. During the transition to the simultaneous feeding of two 7-8-month-old children, at first, both of them, at the sight of a spoon, open their mouths, waiting for food. Subsequently, each child does not immediately open his mouth, but waits for the spoon to be directed directly in his direction.
Gradually, this type of internal inhibition develops. For example, children can restrain themselves from eating candy (although they really want to) until they have eaten the whole dinner; wait patiently for the music worker to come up and offer to knock on the tambourine. The ability to temporarily slow down, restrain one's desire, if it cannot be fulfilled at the present moment for some reason, is of great importance in educating a child's character and behavior.
This ability must be developed, educated, but it should be remembered that the child can wait, that is, delay the reaction only for a very short time. So, for example, a child of 9-10 months can calmly wait until the teacher gives 2-3 tablespoons of food to another child, but he cannot wait until she also gives to the third child. Therefore, children of this age need to be fed only two at a time.
In children, it is also possible to form internal inhibition, called "conditioned", that is, a delay in a previously developed reaction under some additional condition, which in this case has an inhibitory effect. For example, in the presence of the father, the child restrains his desire to play with an object that the father forbids to take, but with which the child can play in the absence of the father. The presence of the father is a brake. Very early on, the word “no” can become such a brake. If the word "cannot" is always accompanied by the termination of the action begun by the child on the part of the adult, then it becomes a brake in relation to the unlawful reaction.
Along with these four types, there is also a "higher" inhibition (P.K. Anokhin) - the inhibitory effect of the cerebral cortex on subcortical activity.
The importance of internal inhibition in raising a child is very great. This type of inhibition provides a fine adaptation to the prevailing situation, eliminates activities that are inadequate to the surrounding conditions.
So, in early childhood, both positive and negative inhibitory conditioned reflexes are formed, which are the physiological basis of many skills, actions, education of various rules of behavior.

Bibliography

1. Physiology / Ed. S.A. Georgieva. - 2nd ed. - F48 M .: Medicine, 1986 .-- 400 p.

2. Education of children of early age / N.М. Aksarina - M .: Medicine, 1977 .-- 120 p.


Provided with some abbreviations

Internal, or conditioned, inhibition also develops early. Internal inhibition is developed, formed in the process of individual life. The formation of internal inhibition is a complex nervous process that requires a lot of nervous tension. The formation of an inhibitory conditioned reflex passes through the so-called "difficult state" (P.K. Anokhin), which arises as a result of non-reinforcement of a previously established reflex.
The earliest forming type of internal inhibition in a child is "extinction", a striking example of which is, for example, the extinction of the reflex "to the position under the breast." This "extinction" occurs because often the child was taken in his arms in the "position under the breast", but they did not feed, but talked to him, walked around the room, etc. Therefore, the previously formed conditioned reaction in the form of sucking movements to the "position under breastfeeding "fades away as irrational.
Instead, a more accurate adaptation to the surrounding conditions is formed. For example, a child has developed a habit of taking away a toy he likes from another child with impunity. If an adult takes this toy away from the child and gives it to the offended, the child will cry loudly, become excited. If the child knows that the taken away toy will never remain with him, then he will stop taking it away - the desire to take away the toy is inhibited.
Thus, in the process of a child's development, many previously formed reflexes fade away, being replaced by others more appropriate to the new conditions of life. When raising young children, they often use this ability of "extinction" in the case when it is necessary to wean the child from any negative habit, for example, from motion sickness.
Previously educated positive forms of behavior may also fade away. For example, a previously formed cleanliness skill can fade away in a hospital if this skill is not maintained. The need for communication may also fade if the child's messages are not receiving positive reinforcement from adults.
At the end of the 3rd or 4th month, another type of internal inhibition is also formed - differentiation, for example, into color - a distinction between two colors (for example, green and yellow from red). It is just as early to form a differentiation into the shape of an object, for example, to distinguish a cube from a sphere.
Recognition of the mother, in contrast to strangers, is the formation of visual differentiation, the recognition of the mother's voice is auditory differentiation. Both are observed in the 5th month of life. At first, the child distinguishes objects that are sharply contrasting in their external qualities, later the differentiation becomes more and more subtle. If a child was given a bitter medicine from a teaspoon, then after several doses he screams and turns away at the sight of this spoon, although the child reaches out to the dessert spoon from which he received food.
In the 1st year of life, a third type of inhibition also appears - "delay", that is, the conditioned reaction does not occur immediately, but with some delay. An example would be the following behavior. During the transition to the simultaneous feeding of two 7-8-month-old children, at first, both of them, at the sight of a spoon, open their mouths, waiting for food. Subsequently, each child does not immediately open his mouth, but waits for the spoon to be directed directly in his direction.
Gradually, this type of internal inhibition develops. For example, children can restrain themselves from eating candy (although they really want to) until they have eaten the whole dinner; wait patiently for the music worker to come up and offer to knock on the tambourine. The ability to temporarily slow down, restrain one's desire, if it cannot be fulfilled at the present moment for some reason, is of great importance in educating a child's character and behavior.
This ability must be developed, educated, but it should be remembered that the child can wait, that is, delay the reaction only for a very short time. So, for example, a child of 9-10 months can calmly wait until the teacher gives 2-3 tablespoons of food to another child, but he cannot wait until she also gives to the third child. Therefore, children of this age need to be fed only two at a time.
In children, it is also possible to form internal inhibition, called "conditioned", that is, a delay in a previously developed reaction under some additional condition, which in this case has an inhibitory effect. For example, in the presence of the father, the child restrains his desire to play with an object that the father forbids to take, but with which the child can play in the absence of the father. The presence of the father is a brake. Very early on, the word “no” can become such a brake. If the word "cannot" is always accompanied by the termination of the action begun by the child on the part of the adult, then it becomes a brake in relation to the unlawful reaction.
Along with these four types, there is also a "higher" inhibition (P.K. Anokhin) - the inhibitory effect of the cerebral cortex on subcortical activity.
The importance of internal inhibition in raising a child is very great. This type of inhibition provides a fine adaptation to the prevailing situation, eliminates activities that are inadequate to the surrounding conditions.
So, in early childhood, both positive and negative inhibitory conditioned reflexes are formed, which are the physiological basis of many skills, actions, education of various rules of behavior.

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