Types of jewelry technology of ancient Rus'. Jewelry art of Kievan Rus. There is a business for a blacksmith: goods for warriors and farmers

When creating jewelry, the craftsmen use a large number of different techniques and techniques: thanks to them, each item acquires its own unique mood, value and significance. And, first of all, the quality of jewelry execution depends on the skill and experience of the jeweler, because such techniques as, for example, filigree or granulation require great concentration, precision of movements and perseverance in their work.

We offer you to learn more about different jewelry techniques and their history.

Filigree and filigree

Photo of a product made using the filigree technique (scani)

The filigree technique consists in creating an ornament by soldering together elements from a thin wire of precious and non-precious metals. The resulting lace can be soldered onto any base (brazed filigree) or form an air pattern (openwork filigree).

The term “filigree” itself comes from two Latin words: filum, which means “thread”, and granum, grain. In Rus', this technique acquired the name "scan" from the old Russian "skati", that is, "twist", "twist". The Russian filigree technique originated in the 10th-12th centuries, and by the 19th century it had already acquired the status of art. Jewelry, vases, caskets, decorative panels were made with filigree.

Christmas ball-box made using filigree technique (filigree)). Photo: Zlat Dar

The essence of the filigree technique is quite simple, but it requires a high level of artistic and jewelry skill, since the whole process is exclusively handmade. First, a sketch of the future pattern is depicted on paper in full size. Then, from a smooth or pre-twisted wire, its elements are created, which are glued to a paper sketch - they must exactly repeat the drawing. Under the action of the flame of a special burner, the parts are soldered into a single pattern, and the paper burns completely.

The village of Kazakovo, located in the Nizhny Novgorod region, has become the center of modern scanned art. The first workshop opened here in 1939, and today it is already a large plant of CJSC "Kazakovskoe enterprise of art products." The range of manufactured products is incredibly wide: jewelry, decorative elements, orders and medals, church and religious items. Due to high quality and artistic value, the plant's products are a success in the domestic market and abroad.

Grain

In Russian jewelry art, filigree and granulation techniques are inextricably linked. Grain is usually added to scanned patterns, giving them a more complete and finished look. The simple name of the technique fully reflects its essence. A grain is an ornament created from small, 0.3-0.4 mm in diameter, gold, silver or platinum grains. The balls are installed in pre-prepared recesses in the pattern on the thinnest layer of solder, which fuses them with the base in the flame of the burner. It is important that the solder can securely fix the pattern, but does not violate its clarity, spreading beyond the recess. In Rus', gold leaf mixed with mercury was used for these purposes, in the process of soldering the mercury burned out, and the gold quickly melted, forming a reliable clutch.

Another condition for creating a high-quality pattern is the same size of all grains. To obtain them, a thin wire is cut into small pieces, which are placed on pieces of charcoal, where recesses of a given diameter are located in rows, the molten wire flows into them, forming small balls, which will later go to decoration.

blackening

The blackening technique is also a fairly old jewelry technique. The composition for blackening is applied to the surface of the product in accordance with the pattern, then the black is melted in special ovens, forming a contrasting pattern. Each master has his own recipe for the mixture for blackening; the color and strength of the coating, its thickness and density depend on its composition.

Often, filigree and grained items are blackened to give clarity and texture to the ornament. Also, a three-dimensional pattern can be applied by gouging, chasing, engraving.

Among all metals, blackening of silver is the most common, since in this case the product not only acquires a richer and nobler appearance, but also becomes resistant to chemical and mechanical damage. Gold and platinum are used less frequently only because it is almost impossible to remove high-quality black from the surface in the future, and such decoration can no longer be melted down.

We hope that the information turned out to be interesting and useful for you. We also invite you to get acquainted with the complex, but increasingly popular, technique of working with metals - which originated in the 17th century in Japan.

The art of creating jewelry was called the beautiful word "patterned". However, our ancestors resorted to patterning to a greater extent not to please their beautiful eyes, but to create amulets.

They were able to protect against numerous troubles: the evil eye, the loss of livestock, water, fire, snakes and many other dangers that lay in wait for our ancestors at every turn. At the same time, the “magic” properties of jewelry were valued by everyone without exception, regardless of class and wealth.

Initially, useryazi or temporal rings were not just put into the ears or fixed above the ears (therefore they were also called “muffs”), but also woven into the hair or attached to the headdress with ribbons, straps or “braids”. It is these decorations that are considered one of the characteristic details of the traditional ancient Russian costume. Women in each of the Slavic tribes wore special temporal rings: Krivichi - bracelet-shaped, Vyatichi - seven-lobed, Novgorod Slovenes - rhombic shields. Usually useryazi were made of copper or iron alloys, although, for example, in the Kiev Historical Museum you can see Vyatichi temple rings made of silver. Useryazi could be wire rings - and this was the most common way to make them, less often jewelry was made from beads or shields.

This hollow metal pendant attached to a headdress was especially popular with women in the 11th-13th centuries. Kolts were found in the composition of many treasures found on the territory of Ancient Rus'. It is interesting that the name "colt" was given to the decoration only in the 19th century - its ancient name has not been preserved. Star-shaped and rounded kolts are known, while the latter were often made of gold and decorated with cloisonné enamel depicting birds, sirens, the tree of life, etc. Pearl trims were launched along the edge of such kolts. Star-shaped silver and gold kolts were covered with grain and filigree. It is clear that only rich women could afford such jewelry. However, at the end of the 13th century, to meet the demand of the general population, kolts began to be cast from bronze and lead. Now everyone could buy jewelry in the markets. Unfortunately, after the Tatar-Mongol invasion, kolts went out of fashion.

Hryvnias are a kind of neck jewelry. It is interesting that women in Rus' adored green beads, and their husbands had to bear significant expenses, because one green bead was estimated at 15-20 silver coins. And if women of all classes decorated their outfits with glass beads, then only wealthy ladies could afford metal hryvnias. The most expensive were bilon hryvnias - they were made from an alloy of copper and silver, but the "hit" ones themselves were copper or bronze, sometimes covered with silver.

Rings with a shield, which was decorated with precious stones, were called rings. Often the rings turned into bracelets - twisted, lamellar or woven. The images on the rings could be very different: animals, geometric patterns or other symbols that were significant for the owner of the jewelry. A special place was occupied by printed rings, which were used to apply an imprint-signature on various documents. It is clear that on seals the symbolism of the image was certainly associated with the owner.

Necklace

The necklace is an ornament that was often mentioned in the documents of the 17th century. It was a standing or lying collar, which was fastened to clothing. In front, the necklace was fastened with buttons made of precious stones. Necklaces could be worn by both men and women. The decoration was embroidered with pearls or decorated with jewels. Among the remains of women's clothes of the 12th century, standing necklaces made of birch bark and leather, covered with silk or other fabric and decorated with embroidery or gold thread, were also found. These ornaments were passed down with love from generation to generation. So among the treasures that the Belozersky prince Mikhail Andreevich gave to his children, there was a tie-down necklace. The necklace, embroidered with more than three thousand pearls, was also passed on to her children by Princess Ulyana of Volotsk. By the way, not so long ago, necklaces seem to be back in fashion!

Jewelry art is the manufacture of various products, usually from precious metals using gems. Initially, such things served not only for beauty, but also to emphasize the high social status of the owner or owner. Also, magical functions were often attributed to jewelry. They were used, for example, as protective amulets and talismans. The history of jewelry goes back to ancient times. Initially, the creation of jewelry did not involve any kind of processing. Over the centuries, art has improved, craftsmen have created more and more complex and exquisite jewelry. Let's trace the history of the jewelry craft and name its outstanding masters.

Ancient Egypt

Jewelry is surprisingly well developed in ancient Egypt. The decorations created there still amaze with their beauty and complexity. In form, they usually resembled images of ancient deities. In ancient Egypt, they believed that jewelry performs magical functions: it protects against diseases and evil spells, it connects a person with the forces of nature.

Wearing jewelry was supposed to be on certain parts of the body. First of all, it was the region of the heart (it was considered the most significant organ). To protect it, items in the form of a scarab were worn on the chest. The beetle symbolized vitality, activity, resurrection. In addition, the middle of the forehead was an important point. Ancient Egyptian craftsmen, making decorations for her, used symbols of strength and wisdom, such as images of a snake. Speaking about the technique of making products, it can be noted that chasing and engraving were usually used, and the favorite materials of the Egyptians were gold, silver, obsidian and amethyst.

Ancient Greece

The ancient jewelry art in Greece was distinguished by great elegance and subtlety. The favorite technique of the masters was filigree - the execution of the most complex pattern from thin gold or silver wire soldered to a metal background. Most often, a floral ornament was used: images of flowers, leaves, vines.

Of the materials, gold was most valued - magical properties were attributed to this metal. In general, jewelry emphasized the status of the owner, so the thinner and more complex the work, the more expensive it was. Wealthy Greek women wore a wide variety of jewelry. Fine products for hair and neck, as well as bracelets were held in high esteem. The exception was perhaps Sparta - local women did not wear lush and fancy jewelry, preferring simple metal jewelry.

Renaissance Jewelry

Renaissance jewelry is striking in its sophistication, beauty and complexity. Craftsmen used a variety of techniques, including chasing, cutting and enamelling. They were largely influenced by ancient traditions, at the same time, features typical of those years were also introduced.

So, jewelry no longer indicates the status of the owner, but rather emphasizes the refinement of taste and imagination. They become unique and distinctive. Gems, pearls and exquisite enamel details adorn not only jewelry, but also magnificent ladies' outfits. Rings and massive pendants are becoming very popular.

In Germany, craftsmen use very unusual materials in their work: coconut shells, ostrich eggs and shells.

Jewelers of Ancient Rus'

Russian jewelry art has a great history. Evidence of this is the modern quality and subtlety of the work of ancient craftsmen that amaze even now. Jewelry was influenced by Scandinavian, Eastern and Byzantine cultures, and at the same time was inextricably linked with folk customs and traditions.

Masters from all corners of Kievan Rus perfectly mastered the most complex techniques, including artistic casting, filigree and gold guiding. Veliky Novgorod was famous for its jewelry made of precious metals. Kyiv jewelers processed gems with extraordinary skill. The most common decorations were the so-called ones that were woven into the hair or hung from the headdresses. Women also wore a variety of bracelets and beads with pendants.

Rus' in the XIV - XVII centuries

With the advent of the Tatar-Mongol hordes, jewelry was forgotten for almost a century. Many craftsmen died or were taken away to work for the Horde rulers. Only towards the end of the 14th century does a gradual return to ancient art begin. Moscow becomes the center of the jewelry craft, where the technique of silver filigree is very popular.

In the 16th - 17th centuries, jewelry art actively used enamel and gems. The decorations of this period are characterized by richness, colorfulness and saturation of colors. Stones also differ in brightness - sapphires, rubies, emeralds are held in high esteem. This time is called the heyday of blackening technology. Silversmithing centers are being set up in many cities.

European jewelry art of the 18th century

In the 18th century, the dominant styles were. This also applies to jewelry. Fancifulness, splendor and bright colors become fashionable. At the same time, the leading position is occupied by French jewelry art. It was then that jewelry acquired its modern look. Jewelry ensembles are gradually coming into fashion, large brooches are very popular with wealthy people. The most favorite stones are yellowish, pinkish and bluish diamonds, and they are used in both men's and women's suits.

Rus' in the 18th century

In Russia in the 18th century, jewelry art flourished. This happened largely due to the reforms of Peter I. Since then, jewelry has been actively borrowing European trends, while maintaining its originality. Foreign masters often come to Russia. Among them is the famous Jeremy Pozier, who worked at the court for thirty years and created true masterpieces of jewelry art. His best work is considered to be the Great Imperial Crown, made for Catherine II. Unique in its kind, the product has almost five thousand diamonds. Now this relic is carefully preserved by the unique museum of jewelry art - the Diamond Fund in Moscow.

In general, the use of gemstones becomes popular at this time. Sparkling, bright, superbly crafted and decorated, they perfectly complement and decorate the magnificent outfits of noble ladies and nobles.

Interestingly, the very word "jeweler" also came into use in the 18th century. It replaced the rather long title "gold and silversmith".

Europe in the 19th century

In the middle of the 19th century, jewelry became more widespread. At the same time, less valuable stones and materials began to be used: aquamarine, malachite, artificial diamonds. Jewelry art has also changed the general style - classicism is replacing rococo, respectively, jewelry becomes more strict and carefully crafted. Products with precious stones are gradually ceasing to be used in men's suits, but cane knobs and expensive snuffboxes are coming into fashion.

Among the well-known masters, one can distinguish the court jeweler of Napoleon I, Martin Guillaume Bienne. In the 19th century, such world-famous houses as Cartier and Tiffany were born.

The state of affairs in Russia in the 19th century

Jewelry art in Russia reached its highest level in the 19th century. At this time, the direction of work changes significantly, the craftsmen try to move away from European traditions and return to the original Russian ones, giving the products a national flavor. River pearls are becoming especially fashionable.

Large enterprises of silver and gold business appear in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The firms of Ovchinnikov, Postnikov, the Grachev brothers are especially famous and, of course, with their amazing skill they conquer not only the Russian nobility, but also the royal courts of Western Europe. However, their products are also available to the average buyer - we are talking about cigarette cases and silverware.

According to experts, the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century is the golden age of Russian jewelry art.

The twentieth century

In the last century, a large number of trends have been formed in the jewelry art. In the first decades, the dominant style is modern. In jewelry art, his influence was realized in the extreme complexity of the forms and ornaments of jewelry. Platinum and palladium are actively used. Diamonds are gaining popularity again. Costume jewelry is also becoming fashionable, the distribution of which was significantly influenced by the famous Coco Chanel.

In the war and post-war years, products become simpler, gold is often replaced by bronze. In the second half of the century, under the influence of nonconformist ideas, craftsmen began to use unusual materials in their work, previously unthinkable for jewelry: wood, plastic, steel, and others. With the development of sophisticated technology, jewelry with chameleon stones appears, capable of changing color depending on temperature changes or the mood of the owner. Cultured pearls of various colors are becoming popular.

In the Soviet years, Russian jewelry firms produced mostly mass products. But at the end of the last century, modern masters decided to revive the guild of Russian jewelers in order to return the former glory to the jewelery art.

Modern Art

Today, jewelry craft, perhaps even more than before, is becoming an art. Jewelry is one of the forms of creative self-expression. Modern businesses use more professional tools and affordable materials. However, many products are made of synthetic materials. And although they cannot surpass the beauty and perfection of natural stones, they still compete with them with dignity.

Modern jewelry art worthily continues the traditions of the old masters. And the use of new technologies allows you to create more and more unusual and interesting jewelry.

There are many glorious pages in the thousand-year history of Russian culture. Many of them are dedicated to remarkable masters of art who built temples and fortresses, painted frescoes and miniatures for the first chronicle books, created household items that not only served a person, but also made his life bright and festive.

A significant number of pages of this book are connected with the activities of Russian jewelers, whose talent and great technical skill gave mankind beautiful objects of art. Many things created by jewelers are small in size, but their artistic value, beauty and expressiveness are so great that they help us to feel and understand the era, the flavor of the time in which they were created.

For certain periods of history, jewelry items are almost the only sources for the study of material culture. Their character and features help scientists to trace the birth and development of the culture of individual peoples, to capture the originality and national features of art.

Artistic heritage has always played a big role in the development of art. The best works of a time far from us preserve enduring beauty. We are surprised and delighted by the high skill of their creators, the ability to understand and appreciate the beauty of the material. Things tell about the creative development of a person, about his artistic ideals. And for the modern master, they will always serve as an example and a serious lesson in creativity.

The jewelry art of our country, associated with a new culture of everyday life and clothing, will develop fruitfully if artists can worthily appreciate and use the experience of master jewelers of the past, whose products continue to serve as sometimes inaccessible examples of art and technical skill.

This book, dedicated to Russian jewelry, aims to help artists and craftsmen in their practical work. It shows those decorations in which the features of Russian originality and the talent of their creators were most clearly manifested.

The material collected in this work does not represent the history of the development of Russian jewelry. This requires a broader formulation and consideration of all issues related to Russian jewelry. In this case, we will limit ourselves to only individual periods, which represent the most important stages in the development of Russian jewelry.

The complexity of considering materials on the decorations of the Russian costume is primarily due to a small study of this issue. If the jewelry of the pre-Mongolian period received special coverage in the works of such researchers as B. A. Rybakov, A. S. Gushchin, G. F. Korzukhin, then the jewelry of more recent periods of history are considered only partially in the general sections of decorative and applied art.

Of particular difficulty is the material devoted to Russian jewelry of the Soviet era. Here we are confronted, first of all, with a very short period, since the real development of jewelry, in essence, begins only from the 50s. Therefore, this chapter should be considered only in order to raise the question of the modern direction of development of Russian jewelry.

As illustrations for the book, jewelry kept in the central art museums of Moscow and Leningrad, as well as items from the collections of local history museums of the RSFSR, are used.

Jewelry art of Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the pre-Mongolian period

Kievan Rus for our people is the milestone from which we begin the countdown of many important events related to the history of the Russian state, the Russian people, Russian culture. This period is characterized by the creation of excellent monuments of artistic creativity in the field of architecture, crafts, writing, which survived the centuries and made up the glory and pride of the Russian nation.

Kievan Rus was the first Russian feudal state that arose on the ruins of the tribal system. In this state, many Slavic tribes united, to which other peoples were later attached. So gradually the princes of Kyiv created a great power, which K. Marx called the "Empire of the Rurikids." Christianity, introduced in 988 under Prince Vladimir, played a significant role in the creation and strengthening of the Kyiv state. This event had great political meaning. The Christian religion inspired the people with the idea of ​​the divine origin of the prince, actively helping to assert his power. In addition, the adoption of Christianity opened wide ways for the young Russian state to communicate with the countries of the East and West, especially with Byzantium, which at that time was an advanced country in the field of culture, the custodian of the traditions of ancient Greece and Rome.

The adoption of Christianity by Kievan Rus was a natural phenomenon. It ideologically formalized the transition to a new social system. Many things changed with him: occupations, beliefs of people, their way of life. Feudal relations led to the development of large-scale agriculture, the growth of cities, the emergence of a large number of artisans who built princely houses, forged weapons, and sewed clothes. The works of Kyiv goldsmiths were highly valued by contemporaries. The monk Theophilus, who presumably lived in the 11th or 12th century, wrote in his treatise "On Various Crafts" that Russian craftsmen take a place after the Byzantine ones in their art and leave behind the jewelers of Germany and Italy.

In the culture of Ancient Rus', there were rapid processes of development of various types of art. To a large extent, their course was influenced by contacts with the peoples of other countries.

Not without a certain influence of Byzantium, jewelry was being improved and, in particular, such techniques as enamel, niello, filigree, granulation. Skillful blacksmiths worked alongside the jewelers. Their skill was known not only among the Russian people. The locks created by blacksmiths were sold to many European countries. Potters and glass makers made various dishes, and colored bracelets were made from glass. The world of objects created by artisans was diverse and beautiful.

However, both the developed craft, which is the basis of the applied art of Kievan Rus, and the specific motives of things created by ancient Russian craftsmen are connected not only with the influence of the culture of other peoples. A major role in the leap that the art of the Kyiv masters made was played by the creativity of the pagan period of the ancient Slavs.

Over the centuries-old history of worshiping the forces of nature, the Sun, Earth, Water, which give life to man, paganism has put such deep roots into the minds of people that the Christian ideology, in essence, could not defeat it. Even having occupied a dominant position in the Russian state, Christianity was forced to adapt to paganism, to its gods, holidays, external forms of manifestation. They remained for a long time in the life of Russian people, in their art.

The peculiar symbolism of amulets-amulets was preserved in clothes, in the embroidery with which they were decorated, in metal details that complemented the costume. Having lost its former meaning, archaic pagan symbols have survived in peasant embroidery and other types of folk art to this day.

The moment of complex interweaving of pagan and Christian ideologies must be kept in mind when considering ancient Russian art for two reasons. Firstly, it proves that the art of Kievan Rus did not arise suddenly. Its basis was the artistic creativity of the ancient Slavs, which made it possible to use the art of Byzantium in their own way, not to submit to it, but to preserve their character, their originality. Secondly, the pagan art of the ancient Slavs, with its original products, with its technical achievements, was a prologue to the development of handicrafts in Kievan Rus.

It is possible that cast brooches with champlevé enamel, which existed among the pagan Slavs, predetermined the interest in cloisonné enamels, which were widely used in gold kolts of the 11th-12th centuries by Kyiv jewelers. Evidence that the artisans of Kiev knew ancient Slavic jewelry is the fact that in the jewelry complex of the entire pre-Mongolian period there were such items as torcs of various types, crescents-pendants of necklaces and other types of jewelry common among the ancient Slavs.

Naturally, the masters of the Kyiv state were well aware of the technique of performing these things. Therefore, they were able to develop it and bring it to a high degree of perfection.

A specific conversation about the jewelry of clothing of any historical period begins with what the clothes were like and what role the jewelry played in it, how they were used. For the characterization of the ancient Russian costume, this issue is especially difficult. Everything here is based on conjectures and assumptions of scientists who have very modest data in their hands, allowing them to reconstruct the costume of Ancient Rus' in the most general terms. We do not have any images that help to restore the nature of the clothes with sufficient accuracy. Even archaeological discoveries, which are associated with the finds of jewelry, do little to clarify the issues of interest to us. Treasures buried in the ground contain objects quite different in purpose, and, as a rule, the costume itself is not preserved in the burials. Only the location of items on the remains of a person helps to imagine the nature of the use of jewelry in the general complex of Russian clothing.

Judging by these materials, we can say that jewelry occupied a large place in the clothes of the ancient Slavs. But their use was primarily functional. The expressiveness of forms, artistic and technical techniques that affect our feelings and are perceived by us as features of art, were the natural qualities of various decorations for the clothes of ancient Russian people. Their massiveness, large size, constructive clarity are due to simple technical means by which these decorations were created. But the very purpose of objects that served as amulets against evil spirits or represented amulets - symbols of happiness, goodness, fertility, etc., played a decisive role here. Therefore, the constructive or pictorial principle underlying the thing was distinguished by clarity and simplicity. It was a kind of generalization, presented in the form of a sign, the content of which is clear to every member of society. Just as the embroidery pattern on the collar of a shirt or at the end of a sleeve was associated with protective symbols, a neck torc or a smooth bracelet performed this task in more modest pictorial forms.

Decorations of the X-XI centuries, the period of the formation and strengthening of the Kievan state, are closely connected with the traditions of the pre-feudal period. Most of them are made by forging and casting, so they are massive and heavy. The materials used were copper, silver and their alloys. Even village jewelers made many items from silver alloys with other metals.

Typical decorations of this time are smooth bracelets and neck torcs made of a thick metal bar. In bracelets, the ends of the bar are made thinner and slightly flattened by forging. In a hryvnia, some part of the rod is, as a rule, twisted around its axis, which makes the thing non-uniform in processing, creating a transition to the smooth part of the metal jewelry. The hryvnia bracket ends with the simplest lock in the form of two hooks. These items, primitive in type, are preserved throughout the entire pre-Mongolian period. Performed in a simple way, they are similar to the same decorations of other peoples who are at the early stages of cultural development. However, over the course of the 10th-13th centuries, neck ornaments became more diverse, the methods of their execution were improved, and the very name hryvnia was later applied not only to a hoop, but also to other neck ornaments. So, for example, they called necklaces, consisting of medallions or moons. In these forms, peculiar types of products were developed, which can already be called characteristically Russian.

In ancient Rus', the division of jewelry into men's and women's did not exist. Only in the second half of the 11th century did items of special female attire such as necklaces, beads, and various pendants appear. Before that, hryvnias, and bracelets, and earrings were items of decoration for men's attire. This is indicated by historical documents, annals, chronicles. In "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", figuratively describing the death of Prince Izaslav of Polotsk, the author writes: "Only pluck the pearl soul from a brave body through a gold necklace." True, here we can talk not necessarily about a golden hryvnia, but also about an embroidered golden mantle. There is also indisputable information about the decorations included in the men's attire. In the well-known story of Leo the Deacon about the meeting between Prince Svyatoslav and the Byzantine emperor Tzimisces, a description is given of an earring in the prince's ear. It appears to have been a three-beaded ring, akin to the common temple rings.

With the development of cities and the growth of crafts, the methods of making things are being improved. Already in the 10th century, hryvnias and bracelets were made not only from one forged rod, but also from three, intertwined with each other. This technique is becoming a favorite among jewelers. It gives a relief study of the surface, on which light, shadow, glare play well. To enrich this game in the bracelets, a thin filigree thread was passed between the thick wires - a twisted metal wire. This gave special sophistication to products made of gold and silver, which were intended for the prince's combatants.

Numerous pendants-amulets associated with the pagan cults of the Slavs occupy a significant place in the village decorations of this time. They were made of bronze and low-grade silver by casting technique. These are whole systems of pendants with chains on which figurines of birds, keys, spoons are hung. Some items were included in necklaces, others were worn on a cord attached to the chest or at the waist. This type of jewelry was common to the Eastern Slavs.

The horse was a symbol of happiness, kindness. It was associated with the cult of the Sun, so the image of the horse was often decorated with circles with a dot in the middle - decorated with solar signs. The items included in the sets of amulets also had a certain symbolic meaning: spoons - a symbol of satiety and contentment, keys - the integrity and safety of property. Among these adornments are individual objects of small size, which were easily cast in a clay mold (flat-relief images of a horse, a bird). But there are quite a few amulets that are more complex in terms of making, and are made according to the "lost form", that is, according to the wax model. The process of creating jewelry was as follows. A model was woven from linen or woolen laces soaked in wax. It was poured over with a liquid solution of clay, and after the form had thickened and hardened, the wax was melted out, and the laces were burned out. Metal was poured into a cleaned clay mold. The result was a product reminiscent of filigree jewelry in terms of execution technique. Casting on a wicker wax model was especially widespread in the northeastern regions, where mixed Slavic tribes lived. Here, decorations are always associated with a system of noisy pendants (Fig. 1). In areas located closer to the west, in the Russian regions proper, the existence of jewelry of this type is less common, which is confirmed by archaeological finds in the Smolensk region.

There are a lot of old-style decorations that were preserved among the Eastern Slavs until the 11th century. These are lunar pendants, seven-lobed temporal rings of the Vyatichi and rhombic shields of the Ilmen Slavs. All these things, as well as the plaques of belt sets, clasps of various shapes with a rather complex ornament, are made by the casting technique most accessible to village jewelers.

At the turn of the 10th-11th centuries, urban artisans used more advanced techniques for making jewelry. In the middle Dnieper region, jewelry embossed from a thin metal sheet appeared (medallions, crescents, earrings). Their surface is decorated with geometric patterns of small and large grains (metal balls), relief stripes resembling primitive embossing (Fig. 2). At that time, rings were made from a thin sheet, the shields of which were filled with fine grain, and sickle-shaped moons. The production of traditional bracelets and hryvnias is being improved. A large twisted plait is being replaced by a thin silver wire, from which almost openwork ropes are woven, which form the basis of a hryvnia or a bracelet. Locks become thinner too. The hryvnia has a small hook and loop, and in open bracelets, decorative knots with ornamental motifs appear at the ends of the staple.

Throughout the 10th-11th centuries, decorations common among all Slavic tribes were similar in type and unity of technical techniques. A sharp difference in the products of individual regions does not yet exist. The process of feudalization of the state takes place in conditions equal for all Slavic tribes. Therefore, in the nature of material culture, there are common features.

By the 12th century, when class relations of feudal society were already beginning to take shape in Rus', there was a noticeable separation of the retinue-princely nobility. For this part of Russian society, jewelers are beginning to create richer and more subtle products.

As a new type of jewelry, at the end of the 11th century, kolts appeared - female temporal jewelry, which existed mainly in the city. With their appearance in the jewelry art of Ancient Rus', a new stage in the development of jewelry begins. Kolts have new images based on motives, they are diverse in shape and are distinguished by a truly perfect jewelry performance.

Within the framework of the ancient Russian state, not only Kyiv stands out - "the mother of Russian cities." The cities of Chernigov, Vladimir, Smolensk, and Novgorod developed as major feudal centers. Each of them gains strength and political independence. Some become the main cities of the principalities after the collapse of the Kievan state. Local features also appear in the jewelry art of these centers - decorative techniques, favorite compositions and ornamental motifs. According to these features, three groups of regions of Ancient Rus' can be distinguished: southern Russian (Kiev, Volyn, Chernigov), central Russian (Vladimir, Suzdal, Staraya Ryazan, Moscow) and northwestern regions (Novgorod, Smolensk).

Jewelry art reached a special flourishing in the southern Russian regions of Ancient Rus'. Jewelry created in the 10th-13th centuries by craftsmen from Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Volhynia were notable for their extraordinary perfection of execution and unsurpassed beauty for that time. The sophistication and delicacy of ornamentation, the thoroughness of the decoration of gold and silver things echo the skillful miniatures of the Ostromirov Gospel, Svyatoslav's Izbornik - the first Russian chronicles, magnificent works of book art.

The rapidly growing importance of Kyiv as a major political and cultural center has made this city a leader in the creation of jewelry. The craftsmen who worked here competed in fulfilling various orders of the prince and his entourage, made a wide variety of jewelry for noble combatants and their wives, which served as an integral part of clothing: bracelets, earrings, pendants. The same kind of things, but from simple materials, were made by artisans for the townspeople. The works of Kyiv masters were distributed in many cities of Rus'. This made it possible for craftsmen from different regions to get acquainted with the art of Kyiv and use the achievements of its jewelers.

The success of the masters of Kyiv, the high development of their art is largely associated with the influence of the culture of Byzantium, especially after the adoption of Christianity. Byzantium was not just a powerful and advanced power. She was an exponent of the high level of culture of that time. It was guided not only by Rus', but also by many European states. In the field of clothing, Constantinople, according to the historian I. E. Zabelin, then played the same role that later Paris played for Europe.

Ancient Russian clothing was distinguished by great decorativeness, harmony of color. The traditions of Byzantine decoration in the costume of the retinue-princely nobility found a vivid expression. Strictness and impressiveness were achieved here by a simple cut, clarity and integrity of the silhouette. Even minor folds were eliminated in the upper weekend clothes, which made the human figure monumental. According to the cut of clothes, they were divided into overhead and opashnye. The former were worn over the head, the latter fastened in front with buttons or tied with laces.

A fresco of the 11th century from the Kyiv Sophia Cathedral, which depicts the family of Yaroslav the Wise, gives some idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe clothes, the nature of their wearing. On the incompletely preserved wall painting, one can still see the image of the daughters of the Kyiv prince in rich clothes during a solemn procession. Each princess wears patterned raincoats and red boots. On the heads are transparent covers. A large pattern of clothing fabrics, its wide, clear silhouette and active color create an impression of grandeur and significance.

For the clothes of noble people in Ancient Rus', expensive gold and silk fabrics were used, brought from Byzantium, Italy, and Persia. The simplicity and asceticism of the cut of clothes was compensated by the contrasts of colors, the expressiveness of a large pattern and the richness of the texture of fabrics. The ornament of the fabric was geometric or vegetative, always planar.

In Kievan Rus, the cut of clothing remained the same for all strata of society. But the clothing of the commoner was different from the clothing of the wealthy. In the folk environment, there were mainly home-made fabrics - from wool, hemp, linen, with embroidery and weaving. The women's costume was complemented by a headdress - a crown (kika, koruna) with long pearl strands or chains that fell to the shoulders on both sides of the headdress. Hryvnias, necklaces made of lunnitsa, medallions, rock crystal beads, carnelian, and glass were worn on the chest over clothes. Her hands were intercepted at the wrists by bracelets, and rings gleamed on her fingers.

The rich decorations of Kievan Rus, made of expensive materials, known to us from the 10th-12th centuries, belonged mainly to the retinue-princely nobility. Only a court jeweler, who had a few customers, could spend a lot of time and labor on star-shaped and enamel colts, three-bead temporal rings, necklaces, black bracelets, literally fabulous in terms of subtlety and perfection of execution. They were usually made in large sizes. All types of medieval jewelry techniques are represented in these adornments: cloisonné enamel on gold, granulation, filigree, blackening on silver.

One can imagine how solemn and beautiful the attire of an ancient Russian person was, decorated with these products. But ornaments were not items of everyday decoration; they were worn only on special occasions.

The value of jewelry as amulets decreases over time. Thus, neck hryvnias, beloved in Kyiv, are often already used as signs of reward. The princes give them to their beloved servants, favor combatants for their exploits on the battlefield. It is known that Vladimir Monomakh awarded the "golden hryvnia" hero Alexander Popovich (in epics - Alyosha Popovich) for the defeat of the Pechenegs. However, the meaning of amulets in jewelry is not yet lost.

The development of artistic crafts and the attitude to jewelry not only as to amulets enhances the significance of their decorative effect. In products that complement clothes, the taste of people begins to affect, and its change is reflected in the nature of jewelry. Of course, it is still impossible to talk about fashion here. The processes associated with changes in the nature of ancient Russian jewelry are slow and can be distinguished by considering large periods of history. The changes began with the ceremonial attire of the retinue-princely nobility. The creativity of the masters was aimed at creating new types of jewelry, modifying old ones and endless variations. The stylistic unity of things was preserved, only the forms, sizes and, to a large extent, the technique of execution changed.

Over the course of three centuries (X-XII), the transition from one type of ceremonial dress to another is observed three times. In the second half of the 10th - early 11th centuries, most jewelry was made of silver. Along with forging, embossing of thin sheets of metal is used. The decoration of jewelry is dominated by a geometric non-pictorial ornament lined with grain. From the middle of the XI century, when Kyiv reached its highest power, there was a craze for gold jewelry. For their decoration, jewelers use the finest filigree, precious stones, pearls and enamel. At the beginning of the 12th century, enamel noticeably replaced other types of decor and became almost the only means of decorating things. A new change in the nature of the ceremonial metal headdress is observed in the middle of the 12th century, during the period of feudal fragmentation of the Kievan state. Jewelery art again turns to the strict tonality of silver, but this time in combination with niello - an alloy of silver, sulfur, copper and lead.

Among the ancient Russian jewelry, kolts stand out noticeably. Throughout the pre-Mongolian period, they remain an important detail of the elegant costume of ancient Russian women. They were hung from a headdress above the temple on a chain or ribbon folded in half. These adornments are diverse in form, manufacturing technique, and decorative motifs (Fig. 3). The basis of their design is convex shields, soldered to each other and having a cutout at the top, over which a hanging shackle is fixed. The space formed between the shields was usually filled with fabric impregnated with fragrant oils, the aroma of which spread around when the kolts swayed.

Gold kolts with cloisonné enamel of the 11th-12th centuries are interesting in many respects. And above all, with its pictorial motifs, in which pagan and semi-pagan symbols are gradually replaced by Christian ones. The plots of these images are different, but more often than others there are heraldic motifs of Sirin birds, the tree of life or a young sprout - krin. The elements of the composition are interpreted differently, but their main idea is preserved. Obviously, it stems from the wedding ceremony and is associated with protection from evil spirits and the idea of ​​fertility. The birds on the sides of the tree are a symbol of a married couple, and a sprout between them represents the emergence of a new life. The motif of a sprout, like a grain growing in the ground, is intertwined in the mind of an ancient farmer with the image of a woman expecting the birth of a child. Therefore, on gold kolts, an image of a young woman in a rich headdress is often found. Later, this image is replaced by images of Christian saints, which appear on ancient Russian jewelry (kolts, diadems, necklaces) towards the end of the pre-Mongolian period.

Gold and enamel kolts represent one of the pinnacles of Russian jewelry art in terms of their artistic and technical skill. In the composition of motifs, in the nature of their connection with the object, one can feel the delicate taste of a jeweler who knew how to give a miniature image greater expressiveness. On the round lenticular shape of the kolt, figures of bird-maidens were usually placed. They fit well into the circle thanks to the smooth lines of the silhouette. The symmetrical plot of the composition strengthened the wholeness of the motif, emphasizing the ornamentality of the thing. The subtlety of the graphic design of the partitions with golden lines connected the images with the golden background and kept them flat. Enamels, saturated, bright, perfectly combined with gold, covering its surface with a precious mosaic of blue, white, deep green and red-brick color.

According to the technique of execution, cloisonné enamel colts are very complex. For miniature images, nests were first prepared by gradually removing metal with a cutter, and then narrow strips of metal were soldered into the recess. They also served as partitions for enamels of different colors, which were fixed on gold during firing. Considering that individual cells for enamel were very small, one can imagine what virtuosity the performer of these things possessed.

Colts were designed not only from the front side. The opposite shield had the same elegant decoration. Elements accompanying the main motive were placed here. Their content is also associated by researchers with the wedding ritual. These are lashes of ripe hops, turya horns, from which they drank at a feast.

The decorative composition of the kolts often ended with a pearl trim along the edge of the decoration. Small pearls strung on a wire were usually fastened on the end side, where the colt had a small thickness. Perhaps pearls were also used in the details of the decorative decoration of clothes.

The nature of the composition that adorned the kolts, due to its clear coherence, deep content of the motif, becomes traditional in Russian decorative art. Variations of images of paired birds sitting on the sides of a stylized tree of life have been developed over many centuries in murals and wood carvings, in weaving and embroidery by folk craftsmen until the 20th century.

Among the products with cloisonne enamel, kolts represented the leading group. But they were not the only type of jewelry made using this technique. In the hoards of the 10th-13th centuries, there are also other works of Kyiv masters, similar to the kolts in ornamentation and no less perfect in execution technique. An example is a gold chain consisting of twenty round plaques connected by hinges. The purpose of this circuit is not entirely clear. Some researchers consider it a necklace, others - a kind of ribbon for hanging colts. The plaques in the chain are in many ways reminiscent of colts. Their shape is also slightly convex with alternating images of birds and ornamental motifs. The details of the gold chain, which are smaller than the kolts, are just as expressive. Single figures of birds, obeying a planar solution, are at the same time given in lively, dynamic turns. Their wings are raised and unfolded. The whole figure is perfectly inscribed in the circle, connected with it by the rhythm of smooth lines that outline the contour of the bird. We can talk about this work as one of the finest examples of art, where the artistic conception and the technique of execution are inseparable.

Products with cloisonné enamel mark the transition from massive, coarse jewelry of the pre-feudal era to a new period in jewelry. We saw a reflection of this in enamel kolts. Although their form is still very monolithic, the design is already refined in its own way and noticeably lightened by the color of the enamels and the virtuoso graphics of the partitions. Subsequently, these qualities will develop in the form itself. Rounded colts will appear, with a multi-beam border and star-shaped, the shape of which is dissected and acquires patterned outlines (Fig. 4, 5).

The increase in aesthetic, decorative and ornamental qualities is noticeably manifested in the 11th-12th centuries in the silver jewelry of wealthy citizens. Necklaces made of crescents, cruciform and lily-shaped pendants become more elegant and lighter. Metal details alternate with ceramic beads, colored glass or stone balls. Glass is used by craftsmen of ancient Kyiv as an independent material for creating jewelry. Along with beads, they make multi-colored bracelets of glass (resembling in some cases twisted from a metal bar), as well as glass rings.

In the second half of the 12th century, the multicolored gold enamel jewelry began to give way to the strict elegance of items decorated with niello. In the niello technique, many different items were made from silver and gold. But silver jewelry was especially widespread. Restraint in their design is due to the ratio of silver and black background. Light gilding, highlighting individual parts of the compositions, enlivens things, gives them warmth, creates the impression of picturesqueness.

Compared to gold jewelry, silver jewelry is more diverse. For example, round kolts are found with an openwork border in the form of arches, with a frame made of hollow silver beads or large balls placed on a ring, with a twisted wire rim. A significant number of options have star-shaped colts. They are different in silhouette, the shape of the rays, the decoration of the surface, filled with either rings or fine grains. The sizes of the colts also have a large gradation; craftsmen gradually moved from large items to relatively small items. The variety of silver items, and primarily kolts, is explained by the fact that they were addressed not only to the princely-boyar environment. Wealthy citizens also bought them.

In silver and niello kolts, there is a closeness of pictorial motifs to the motifs known from gold and enamel jewelry. Most often, two birds were also depicted here, and between them a tree of life or a sprout in the form of a trefoil was stylized, which sometimes seemed to grow, intertwining with the ornamentally designed tails of Sirin birds. The pictorial motif is highlighted along the contour by the black background surrounding it. Inside the silhouette, the shape is marked with dashed lines (Fig. 6).

The development of niello technology leads to a more perfect use of it. The contrast between the background filled with black and the silver silhouette of the figures, which were read as a relief overlay, disappears. The niello alloy is increasingly being introduced into the contour of the pattern, and the background notch, which served to securely connect the niello with silver, turns into a decoratively designed metal texture.

In Kyiv products with niello, this evolution is best traced on bracelets. They are also interesting in terms of plots, which are dominated by images of fantastic griffins, lions, birds with human heads. Wide bands of silver bracelets-bracers held the sleeves of clothing at the wrist. They consisted of two wings connected by a hinge. The entire ribbon of the bracelet was divided into hallmarks, where separate images or ornaments were placed (Fig. 7). This principle of division is preserved in all ancient Russian bracelets, with the only difference being that in one case it is a common band divided into hallmarks, in the other two bands.

Bracelets amaze with their carefully thought-out construction. Everything in them is unusually proportionate, proportional. In two-tier products, the top row is often equal to two-thirds of the height of the bracelet, the remaining third falls on the bottom row. This clarity, which makes the composition of the decoration related to the arched belts of ancient Russian churches, is emphasized by the arched completion of each hallmark and the figures inscribed in them. The constructiveness of the bracelet is marked by the relief of the edge processing and stripes, repeating the outlines of the hallmarks. Stylistically, the artistic solutions of bracelets are inextricably linked with the art of their time. The nature of the images and ornaments such as wickerwork find analogies in the miniatures of the obverse manuscripts of the 11th-12th centuries. They are also close to the architectural elements of ancient Russian art: the cast lattices of bronze arches from the city of Vshchizh, the white stone carvings of the Borisoglebsky Cathedral in Chernigov.

During the X-XIII centuries, there were also such items of elegant attire as temporal rings. This type of jewelry was ubiquitous in the Russian lands, but it was especially common in the south of Russia. Light rings with three beads were also part of the princely-boyar ceremonial dress. But they were considered as if secondary, and therefore jewelers did not pay much attention to them, although some temporal rings were even made in gold. These traditional decorations did not seem to excite either the craftsmen or the customers. They were fond of new types of products: kolts, bracelets, bracers, necklaces. Meanwhile, temple rings were a favorite decoration not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Russian women wove them into their hair, hung them from their headdress.

Temporal rings were the most constant item of clothing.

It is possible that filigree openwork beads were also used to create other types of jewelry. In the hoards of the 10th-13th centuries, many curved bows with beads put on them were found. Sometimes the shackle was replaced by a straight rod. N. P. Kondakov, one of the first researchers of Russian antiquities, considered these products to be fasteners and called them "agraphs" (Fig. 8). Later, scientists put forward other versions about the purpose of these things, although no one can provide convincing evidence due to a lack of information about the nature of the use of "agraphs".

Rice. 8. Silver "agraphs". XII century. GIM

But one thing is clear - decorations made in the technique of filigree (filigree) had a variety of applications in the decoration of ancient Russian clothing. Moreover, in some cases, the filigree received a brilliant artistic expression.

In the unique monuments of Russian jewelry, many features can be traced that indicate a change in certain trends in art. In particular, using jewelry as an example, one can see how the figurative symbolism of paganism was replaced by Christian images of saints, crosses, etc. This is especially clearly shown in the enamel hryvnia (Fig. 9) from the 12th-13th centuries from Kamenny Brod (Volyn). In essence, this decoration represents a transitional form from the hryvnia to the shoulder. This is no longer a decorative tourniquet, but a wide ribbon of several gold plates interconnected. The torc, which is wide in the central part, narrows at the ends, to which are attached later details decorated with enamel. The basis of the decoration, which served as the shoulder of a prince or a clergyman, is medallions with half-length images of saints. In the center is Christ, on either side of him are the Mother of God and John the Baptist; further - angels, apostles Peter and Paul, princes Boris and Gleb. The rim of each medallion consists of two rows of embossed cord, similar in texture to a band of small pearls. The images are made in the technique of cloisonné enamel. The fact that this is the work of a local master is evidenced by the South Slavic style of words ("Petro" instead of "Peter") and the inaccuracy of letters and syllables. In the images of the saints, in the character of the entire composition, there is a certain freedom in dealing with motifs. There is not that polished purity that was in Kyiv kolts. In the division of the whole thing, its outlines and the use of color, one feels liberty, mobility. The images of saints are flat, but the expressions of their faces, restless gestures of disproportionately large hands bring excitement and dynamism into the usual balance of the decorative composition. This is also emphasized by the color scheme: large spots of muted dark blue and bright emerald green dominate. They create the main contrast with the warm shimmer of the golden background. Other enamel colors are designed in warm shades and help create the necessary gradation of color transitions from dark to light, from cold to warm. Color is used in images conditionally. The hair of the Apostle Peter is blue, the wings of the angels are a mosaic of red, dark blue and green. In the selection of enamels, one can see the desire of the author of the work to find a play of conditional colorful spots on the surface of gold, to create an expressive color effect.

Along with the unique works of the masters of Kyiv and other cities of the South Russian region in the XII-XIII centuries, many products appeared, made by embossing (stamping) and casting in clay and stone molds.

Thus, the ancient Russian artisans also created mass products. All kinds of pendants for necklaces were made by embossing (crowns, medallions, beads in the form of halves, which were then soldered, Fig. 10). Small silver blocks of a semi-cylindrical shape with intercepts at the ends, similar to chased belts, are original. Of these, they made up entire tapes, the purpose of which has not yet been established.

The developed technique of stamping, or embossing, was also used to repeat expensive things. On a bronze matrix, with the help of a lead gasket, a relief was beaten off on a thin sheet of silver or copper. In the future, this blank was worked on, turning it into a colt with a black background, into a necklace pendant, or into some other decoration.

Particularly widespread at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries were products made by casting. During this period, decorations, which were previously only in the boyar-princely environment, come into wide circulation. But not the things themselves, but their copies, get into the clothes of the townspeople. Masters of the city create molds for casting. Sometimes it is a clay print. But more often the forms are cut out in a dense, but rather soft stone, which makes it possible to obtain small relief details. It is in such "imitation molds" that castings of crescents, round pendants, temporal rings, buttons, balls with granulation are made. Casting molds were most often made by jewelers themselves.

The appearance of molds for casting reflected the originality of the social processes that took place in Kievan Rus during the period of feudal fragmentation. The jewelry of the nobility at this time becomes simpler, poorer compared to the heyday, and the dress of ordinary citizens is more diverse. In their midst, new types of jewelry appear, which were previously worn by the prince, boyars, combatants. These things are repeated by jewelers with the help of casting for sale to the townspeople. The creation of complex carved forms speaks of the demand for cast jewelry and testifies to the wider development of the craft of Kyiv jewelers at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries.

The technique of embossing (stamping) and casting was not a discovery in the work of the masters of Kyiv and other Russian cities. These methods have been used before.

The feature that distinguished the new works was that the richest and most complex decorations were now reproduced by casting.

On the lands of the Central Russian region remote from Kiev, which were part of the power of the Rurikovichs, large associations of Slavic tribes lived: in the upper reaches of the Volga and Dvina rivers - Krivichi, in the basin of the Moscow River and Oka - Vyatichi, on the Sozha River, closer to Kiev - Radimichi. Feudal relations developed here slowly, and cities also grew slowly. Therefore, the craft kept more in the countryside and the objects of material culture for a long time retained the originality of the ancient Slavic forms.

The Vyatichi are characterized by seven-lobed temporal rings and lattice rings. Other decorations common among the Vyatichi - coin-shaped pendants, lamellar bracelets with curved ends, necklaces made of carnelian and glass beads - were items of a more general type.

At the heart of the Vyatich temporal decorations was a ring with a semicircular shield at the bottom. From it diverged to the sides, expanding at the end of the blade (Fig. 11). A geometric ornament in the form of deep dashed stripes was applied to the metal surface. Quite large in size, seven-lobed temporal rings beautifully complemented the headdress, echoing in their pattern with embroideries on clothes.

Temporal rings were made by Vyatichi by casting or stamping and carefully finished off. Their shape changed noticeably during the 11th-14th centuries: the decorativeness and ornamentality of the overall silhouette intensified, the shape seemed to be honed. From the 13th century, as a variant of the seven-lobed temporal ring, an ornament appeared with a shield consisting of three wide lobes (Fig. 12). Its general form is fused in silhouette; articulation is preserved thanks to the openwork strip of rings that frame the blades of the decoration and are very reminiscent of the pearl trim of kolts from Kyiv. Miniature images of paired skates or birds appear in the upper part of the shield. Standing on the sides of a cruciform tree, depicted with a conventional icon, the figures again make us recall the ritual motifs of Kyiv gold and silver jewelry. The expressive combination of smooth metal with fine lace of the finishing elements speaks of the masters' great ability to use various methods of material processing, to turn hard and strong metal into light, airy patterns.

The temporal ornaments of the Radimichi tribe, neighboring with the Vyatichi, are called seven-beam temporal rings. Their scheme is typical for all decorations of this kind, but the tongues extending from the central part do not expand, as in seven-lobed rings, but narrow, turning into strict elongated triangles ended with a ball. The shape of the lunnitsa, polished in the work of many generations of Russian jewelers, is becoming traditional for Russian jewelry. To this day, it is preserved in earrings, popularly called "kalachi".

Temporal rings, rings and other inexpensive ornaments of the Central Russian regions do not yet give a complete picture of the development of jewelry in those places where independent principalities arose in the 11th-12th centuries. The process of feudal fragmentation, which led to the rise of a number of Russian cities as political centers, was accompanied by their social and cultural growth. Crafts are also actively developing in them. The masters of these new centers, on the instructions of their prince, build temples, towers, create various works of decorative art that compete with the best works of Kyiv masters.

Jewelry craftsmanship flourished at that time in one of the large cities, the center of the ancient Russian principality - Staraya Ryazan. Focusing largely on Kyiv, the urban artisans of the Ryazan principality create things in which the art of artistic metal processing reaches a high level. The technique of filigree and granulation, enamel and blackening on silver finds original application in works created in the 12th-13th centuries.

Silver chains, consisting of round plaques and similar to gold chains with enamel from Kyiv, were decorated by local jewelers with stripes and nests of grains. The severity and clarity of the ornament is well associated with the simple design of the chain. Somewhat richer in terms of plasticity and in the combination of granulation and filigree with smooth metal are large silver beads, from which, obviously, rich necklaces were made. This line of development of jewelry craftsmanship finds a particularly vivid expression in star-shaped kolts (Fig. 13).

The large size of the jewelry is emphasized by the sculptural volume of each detail. The shape of the colt, freely deployed in space, retains its integrity due to soft outlines and plastic flow of masses. At the same time, the design scheme is well traced in the product. It is delicately marked with hemispheres of smooth metal placed around the central part and at the ends of the arms. The surface of the rays is abundantly covered with fine granules, from which ornamental triangles and rhombuses of the center are composed. The master also uses grain surrounded by smooth hemispheres. The juxtaposition of large and small forms, smooth and carefully designed metal surface makes the thing elegant and decorative.

But, perhaps, the most remarkable works from the finds in Staraya Ryazan are considered to be jewelry known as "Staraya Ryazan barm". The main elements of these adornments are large filigree beads and medallions. Both are amazingly perfect. Beads of two types - with a uniform set of filigree and with a complex weaving of an ornament - have longitudinal and transverse grooves in which pearls are laid. Already these elements of decoration surprise with the purity of execution, the virtuosity of the scanned drawing. And yet, the most striking thing about Ryazan jewelry is a separate pair of kolts and medallions, which are part of large necklaces. Decorated with precious stones, enamel and gold filigree, these authentic masterpieces of ancient Russian jewelry art are incomparable and unrepeatable. If in Kyiv gold and enamel colts the pictorial principle is subordinated to the graphic one, then all the components of the artistic form interact here: the harmony of color, the plasticity of the relief, the graphic lines. On the front side of the colts, in the technique of cloisonné enamel, the saints are depicted - princes Boris and Gleb framed by a pearl rim. The edge is made up of a wide border-ribbon covered with a filigree pattern. The filigree drawing spreads along the plane in waves. Its floral pattern is filled with knots of conditional buds and leaves. The subtlety of filigree is shaded by large nests in which gems are fixed. On the reverse side (Fig. 14) there are even more stones and an even more virtuoso filigree drawing. Weaving of gold wire is truly fantastic. According to the same principle, the front sides of one-sided necklace medallions are decorated. The static images of the Mother of God, Saints Barbara and Irina are surrounded by a complex two-tier filigree. The ornament is built spatially: one row is superimposed on another. It seems that the filigree is suspended in the air, the details are soldered only at the intersections of the lines. Small irregularly shaped gems (emeralds, sapphires, amethysts), scattered over the openwork ornament, are raised above the surface of the gold plate on miniature filigree arches. Light, penetrating under the stone and reflected from the surface of gold, illuminates the stone from the inside, making its colors burn even brighter. Despite the complexity of the filigree ornament, the abundance of stones, the medallions retain the unity of the artistic solution. It is due to the combination of a cold range of gems and enamels, skillful comparison of sculpturality with the graphics of the pattern. Beautiful decorations were made in Old Ryazan and using the niello technique. It was used in the same way as in Kyiv: the background was filled with black, and the images were drawn with carved strokes. Black bracelets with images of birds, griffins and human figures are made in this manner. All these motifs are still closely connected with pagan symbols, with pagan holidays - mermaids, which were accompanied by dances, singing, war games and other "idol games". For dancing during the mermaids, women wore a dress with sleeves almost to the ground. The sleeves were picked up before the dances began, and they were held at the wrist by wide lamellar hoop bracelets. Before the dance, the bracelets were removed and they danced "sleeveless". The dancing figure of a woman, a harpist and a man drinking from a bowl are depicted by Ryazan masters on black bracelets.

The art of niello found its further development in the decorations of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The solid black background, apparently, seemed to the masters too rough. Therefore, they used niello to guide a bold contour, and the figure of an animal or a fantastic bird was highlighted with gilding. This principle of using niello fully corresponded to the spirit of the thoughtful and refined art developed in Vladimir, Bogolyubov, Yuryev. Contour figures of roaring lions and winged monsters were placed in the hallmarks of wide black bracelets.

The principle of niello, widely used in Vladimir-Suzdal art, reflected not only a change in the interpretation of pictorial or ornamental motifs, it was also associated with a certain improvement, simplification of the design of things. Decorations of the period of established feudalism attract attention not with a mass of gold or silver, but with the skillful work of a master jeweler, expressive juxtaposition of materials, and richness of forms. As a new type of decoration of this time, a mantle appeared - a kind of necklace, consisting of individual medallions, plaques and beads. The beginning of this form of decoration was planned in the Kamennobrod hryvnia. But she still

represented a one-piece construction of soldered plates. In the Suzdal mantle of the 13th century, this is already a mobile system of round silver plaques and hollow beads. Shoulder medallions vary in size; the motifs decorating them are interpreted differently. The Christian symbol - the "flourishing cross" - is almost turned into a floral ornament. The energetic lines of the contour drawing, induced by niello, create a lively composition. Their crisp graphics are light and graceful, set against the gilding that accentuates the patterns and rims of each medallion. A certain picturesqueness created by these means, as it were, masks the symmetrical arrangement of the medallions in relation to the central axis, making the composition of the decoration free and mobile.

The technique of contour blackening, used in the Suzdal mantle, was characteristic of the decorations of the Central Russian principalities. It develops the traditions of Kyiv niello in graphic terms. These features are visible in the products of the Terikhov treasure of the 12th - early 13th centuries. The bracelets-bracers found here are close to similar decorations from Kyiv. Although the bracelet has a niello background, the images of birds, arches and the ornament are carefully engraved with lines and strokes; in some places the line gives a double contour. With special enthusiasm, the master engraved the ribbons of the ornament dividing the bracelet into separate hallmarks.

A silver colt from the same hoard is evidence of the improvement of niello. The silhouette of two griffins with a fleur-de-lis between them is skillfully arranged into a colt plane cut off at the top. The purity and clarity of the pattern is supported by the shimmering cutting of the background, which used to help connect the silver with the niello alloy. A belt of large hollow balls running along the edge of the colt makes the inner pattern particularly fine and precious (Fig. 15).

The unity of style in ancient Russian art united architecture with book graphics, stone carving with sculptural plasticity of jewelry. The technical methods of performing things were also similar. But the masters of each principality found new variants of the general type of products, improved the technique of execution.

One example of the brilliant work of ancient Russian jewelers is the star-shaped kolt of the 11th-12th centuries from the Terikhov treasure. The outlines of the rays, the transitions of the form have reached here a refined plasticity. The juxtaposition of the details is done with an extraordinary sense of proportion. The swollen shape of each beam has a thin interception at the end, where a slightly flattened smooth ball is soldered to stop movement. The six-pointed star of the kolt is all covered with grain, laid in tiny rings (there are over eight hundred of them on each ray). In the center they are covered with large rings of twisted filigree (Fig. 16).

Such decorations were unique and were commissioned by the wealthiest people of that time.

However, the decorations of the Novgorod region were distinguished by simplicity and democracy.

There are no rich shoulders, lush barm and necklaces. Masters do not work in the technique of cloisonné enamel or granulation, blackening of silver is slightly developed. There are almost no items made of gold. However, this does not mean at all that in the art of the North, and especially in Novgorod, jewelry was not improved. It went in a special way.

The social development of the North was slow. While in the south the Slavic tribes were going through the process of feudalization, in the north the decomposition of the tribal system continued. In the life of the people, pagan survivals steadfastly held on. The influence of the refined culture of Byzantium was felt weakly. Therefore, in the art of the North, more originality and immediacy were preserved than in the southern and Central Russian regions. If the decorative side of the products developed in the decorations of Kyiv and Vladimir, then in the North, amulets-amulets retain their significance for a long time.

Most of the decorations of the northern and northwestern regions were made from silver alloys with other metals. Casting was the leading technique; with its help, things were made in the design of which false granulation and patterns resembling filigree were used.

All-Slavic jewelry acquired peculiar shades in the products of the north. Favorite moons turned into a vicious circle, their strongly elongated horns connected to each other, giving a new shape. The surface was enlivened with strict patterns of geometric ornament. The same is typical for openwork round pendants with straight or oblique lattices.

The simplicity and clarity of composition, characteristic of ancient Smolensk and Novgorod jewelry, is revealed in lamellar bracelets of the 12th-13th centuries. The geometric ornamentation of the bracelets, rich in its types, consists of rings, rhombuses, dots, triangles, etc. They were applied mechanically and therefore are so strict, rhythmically clear. The external structure of geometric patterns may have been influenced by woodcarving, strict folk embroideries, but their content is associated with pagan symbols common to all types of art.

Temporal rings were common in the north no less than in the southern regions. But they also had their differences. The three-bead ring is flattened here; on the wire, instead of voluminous beads, there are flattened, rhomboid knots filled with the already familiar geometric ornament. Despite the flatness of the form, the temporal rings were an interesting addition to the female headdress and hairstyle. Further evolution of these adornments led to the appearance of oval shield temple rings.

More voluminous forms of jewelry develop later. Obviously, attention to the filigree technique can explain the appearance of three-bead temporal rings and earrings, which seem to be based on a miniature form of a torc braided from tows.

The decorations of the North do not give a complete picture of the jewelry business of this region. But they reflect the common features of Novgorod art - simplicity, restraint, laconicism. In contrast to the unique, labor-intensive works from Kyiv or old Ryazan, the decorations of the northern and northwestern regions are mass-produced.

The development of the art of the ancient Russian principalities was disrupted in the 13th century by the invasion of countless hordes of the Golden Horde. The centers of Russian culture turned into ruins. Skillful masters of Kyiv, Vladimir, Old Ryazan, Chernigov were killed or driven into slavery.

Novgorod was inaccessible to the Tatars. However, his artistic development also subsided at that time and revived only at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. It was the art of Novgorod, which largely preserved the achievements of the earliest period of Russian culture, and helped its revival in the post-Mongolian period.

JEWELERY OF ANCIENT Rus'

The remarkable art of the ancient Russian jewelers of the era of Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh amazed European travelers who visited Rus' in those days. It has been forgotten for centuries. However, the efforts of domestic archaeologists in the XIX-XX centuries, the creations of ancient masters have found a new life. Hundreds and thousands of jewelry created by masters of the 10th - early 13th centuries were mined from the ground. Exhibited in the windows of museums, they are able to enchant the modern fashionista and arouse deep, sincere admiration of the artist.

In ancient times, Rus' was influenced by several developed cultures at once. In medieval Kyiv, entire quarters were inhabited by foreigners: Greeks, Jews and Armenians. Severe warriors and dexterous merchants from Scandinavia brought the muddy pagan art of the Viking era to the Russian lands. Merchants from the East - a colorful and intricate ornament, so beloved in the countries of Islam. Finally, Christianity, adopted from the mighty Byzantine Empire, spread out on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, connected Rus' with the high artistic culture of this

Saint George. Byzantine enamel. X-XII centuries

Enamel pictures of princes

Boris and Gleb on the salary of Mstislavov

gospels (XII V.) and on ancient bars,

found near the Old Ryazan (XII-XIII V.).

states. Byzantium was in those days the beacon of civilization in barbarian Europe and the keeper of ancient knowledge, bequeathed by the era of antiquity. But along with Christianity, Rus' for several centuries retained persistent pagan traditions. The complex, highly developed religious system of East Slavic paganism became an important source of creative imagination of ancient Russian painters, sculptors and jewelers.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion turned out to be disastrous for many secrets of the jewelry art. The masters who owned them perished in the dashing year of Batyev's defeat or were driven away by the Horde to serve their rulers. For a whole century, the skill of ancient Russian jewelers was practically in decline, and only in the middle - the second half of the XIV century. its slow revival began.

JEWELERY TECHNIQUES

In an era when Kyiv was the capital of the Old Russian state, Eastern Slavs loved to adorn themselves with many jewels. Cast silver rings with ornaments, twisted silver wire bracelets, glass bracelets and, of course, beads were in fashion. They were the most diverse: from colored glass, rock crystal, heart-lobes and rubies, large hollow beads made of cast gold. Round or moon-shaped bronze pendants (lunnitsa) were hung to them, decorated with fine ornaments: never-before-seen magical animals in the Scandinavian style, complex wicker designs, very reminiscent of images on Arab dirhems - coins that were in circulation in those days both in Rus' and in Europe.

But the most popular decorations were temporal rings. Cast silver temporal rings were woven into a woman's hairstyle at the temples or hung from headdresses, they were worn one or several pairs at once. Each East Slavic tribe that became part of the Kievan state had its own special type of temporal rings, unlike the same decorations of its neighbors. Northern women, for example, wore an elegant variety of rings, reminiscent of a curl or a flattened spiral. The Radimichi liked the temporal rings more, in which seven rays diverged from the bow, ending in teardrop-shaped thickenings. On the temporal rings of the Vyatichi, which were among the most decorative, instead of rays, there were seven flat blades. Citizens of the XI-XIII centuries. most loved colts- paired gold and silver pendants,

star colt from the Terekhovsky treasure.

Front side.

star colt from the Terekhovsky treasure.

Reverse side.

Colt from the Terekhovsky treasure. Front side.

Colt from the Terekhovsky treasure. Reverse side.

Colt from the Mikhailovsky treasure. Front side.

Colt from the Mikhailovsky treasure. Reverse side.

which were attached with chains or ribbons to the headdress. Many kolts that have survived to this day are distinguished by an amazing perfection of form. In 1876, near the village of Terekhovo, Oryol province, several pairs of kolts of the 12th - early 13th centuries were found in a rich hoard. They are massive five-beam stars, densely covered with thousands of soldered tiny metal balls. Such jewelry technique is called granulation; it came from Scandinavia and was widely distributed in Ancient Rus'. Along with grain, it was also used filigree: finest silver or gold

wire twisted in bundles was soldered onto plates or twisted into openwork patterns. In 1887, another treasure trove of jewelry from the 11th-12th centuries, including a pair of gold kolts, was found on the territory of the ancient Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Monastery. Kolts were decorated with river pearls and images of fantastic birds with female heads. The colors of the images have not lost their brightness, and their combination is extremely elegant: white, turquoise, dark blue and bright red. Meanwhile, the master who created this splendor died about eight centuries ago. Mikhailovsky kolts are made in

virtuoso jewelry technique cloisonné enamel, which was adopted from the Byzantines. This forgotten art required patience and amazing precision in work. On the surface of the gold jewelry, the jeweler soldered the thinnest gold ribbons-partitions on the edge, which made up the outline of the future drawing. Then the cells between them were filled with enamel powders of different colors and heated to a high temperature. At the same time, a bright and very strong vitreous mass was obtained. Products made in the technique of cloisonné enamel were very expensive, which is why it is no coincidence that most of the products that have survived to this day are details of that god-like princely attire.

Another favorite technique of ancient Russian jewelers was blacking, which, according to some scholars, was the Khazar legacy. Niello was a complex alloy of tin, copper, silver, sulfur and other constituents. Inflicted on a silver surface, the black created a background for a convex image. Especially often, blackening was used to decorate folding bracelets-bracers. Several dozen such bracelets of the 12th century. stored in the State Historical Museum in Moscow. It is not difficult to distinguish figures of musicians, dancers, warriors, eagles and fantastic monsters on them. The plot of the drawings is far from Christian ideas and closer to paganism. This is not surprising. Jewelers used enamel or niello to depict both Christ, the Mother of God, saints, and griffins, dog-headed monsters, centaurs, and pagan festivals.

There were both purely Christian and purely pagan jewelry, which were objects of religious cults. Many pectoral encolpion crosses have been preserved, consisting of two wings, between which were placed pieces of the relics of saints. On the wings there was usually a cast, carved or

blackened image of the Mother of God with the Child. No less often, archaeologists find pagan amulets - objects that protected from illness, troubles and witchcraft. Many of them are cast figurines of horse heads, to which “bells” are attached with chains, made in the form of animals, birds, spoons, knives and grips. With their ringing, the bells were supposed to drive away evil spirits.

"HRYVNA OF VLADIMIR MONOMAKH"

Some monuments of ancient Russian jewelry art have gained great fame. Articles and books are written about them, their photographs are placed in albums dedicated to the culture of pre-Mongol Rus. The most famous is the "Chernihiv hryvnia", or "Vladimir Monomakh's hryvnia". This is a chased gold medallion of the 11th century, the so-called coil, on one side of which is depicted a female head in a ball of eight snakes, symbolizing the devil, a pagan deity or an evil inclination in general. A prayer in Greek is directed against the disease. On the other side is the archangel Michael, called to defend the owner of the hryvnia from the devil's goats. The inscription, made in Slavic letters, reads: "Lord, help your servant Vasily." It was a real Christian amulet against evil spirits. The plot and the very technique of performing hryvnias-serpents are borrowed from Byzantium; in pre-Mongolian times, decorations of this kind were not uncommon. The "Chernihiv hryvnia" was made with unusual skill and must have belonged to a rich, noble person, most likely of princely origin. The cost of this jewel is equal to the amount of princely tribute from the middle city. The medallion was found in 1821 not far from the city of Chernigov, which in ancient times was the capital of the principality.

Bracelets with picture

fantastic animals and ritual

scenes. XII V.

State Russian

museum, St. Petersburg.

Bracelet with a picture

animals. XII V. State Historical Museum, Moscow.

Hryvnia of Vladimir Monomakh. XII V. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg.

The inscription indicating the identity of the owner - Vasily - suggested to historians that the hryvnia belonged to Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125), who was given the name Vasily at baptism. This famous ancient Russian commander and politician reigned in Chernigov for some time. He left "Instruction" to the children, written in the form of memoirs. In this essay, the prince wrote that one of his favorite activities was hunting. Going out on it, Vladimir Monomakh was not afraid of boar fangs and elk hooves. While hunting not far from Chernigov, he dropped a precious hryvnia, which brought to the descendants the work of skillful Kyiv masters.

NAMES ON METAL

The vast majority of the monuments of jewelry art of Ancient Rus' are anonymous. Archaeologists, finding the remains of workshops that belonged to ancient Russian craftsmen of gold and silver, extracted everything necessary for

jewelry craft accessories. However, history has not preserved the names of the remarkable craftsmen who created the “Chernihiv hryvnia” or the kolts from the Mikhailovsky treasure. Sometimes only the jewels themselves “let slip” about their creators. So, craters - precious silver bowls for holy water, created in medieval Novgorod of the 12th century - bear inscriptions in which the names of the masters Costa and Bratila are reported.

The famous Polotsk enlightener of the XII century. In 1161 Princess-Abbess Euphrosyne ordered a cross to contribute to the Spassky Monastery founded by her. The six-pointed cross, about half a meter high, was made of cypress wood and covered with gold plates adorned with precious stones from above and below. Already by the 20s. 20th century almost all the stones were lost, but it is known that there were about two dozen of them, and among them were grenades. The stones were fastened in nests on gold plates, and between them the master inserted twenty enamel miniatures depicting saints. The name of every saint

HELMET OF YAROSLAV VSEVOLODOVICH

In one of the showcases of the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin, an ancient helmet is displayed, the iron of which has rusted, and only the silver lining still shines with a pure brilliance. On the lining decorating the pommel of the helmet, images of Jesus Christ, the Archangel Michael and selected saints are engraved. The work belongs to the Novgorod masters and is made at a high artistic level. The history of the helmet itself is connected with important political events. In 1216, on the Lipitsa River, near Yuryev Polsky, two Russian armies - Novgorodians and Suzdalians - met with numerous allies. The battlefield was plentifully watered with the blood of warriors who belonged to the cities and principalities of half of Rus'. The leaders of Suzdal, and among them Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, father of Alexander Nevsky, were sure of victory. Shortly before the start of the battle, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and his brother Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, according to ancient custom, exchanged armor. The crushing defeat forced them to seek salvation in flight from the battlefield. Yuri, beside himself with fear, took off his heavy chain mail and helmet and hid them until better times. The defeated remained alive and retained princely power, but they failed to find expensive weapons.

Helmet of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, father of Alexander Nevsky.

minted next to the image. Christian relics were kept inside the cross: the blood of Jesus Christ, particles of the relics of Saints Stephen and Panteleimon, as well as the blood of St. Dmitry. The shrine was lined with gilded silver plates, and the edges of the front side were framed with a string of pearls. In the eyes of believers, relics made the cross more precious than the gold and silver used by the jeweler.

The fate of the cross of St. Euphrosyne of Polotsk, which was alternately in the hands of the Orthodox, Catholics, Uniates, in the treasury of the Moscow sovereigns and the hiding place of the French who occupied Polotsk in 1812, is sad. It was lost during the war of 1941-1945, it was searched for by journalists, writers, scientists, politicians and even Interpol (International Crime Organization). The history of these searches is as dramatic and inconclusive as, for example, the epic associated with the famous Amber Room (the walls and all the furnishings of which were decorated with amber), stolen by the Nazis during the years of the same war and since then without successfully searched by scientists.

Descriptions and drawings made before the disappearance of the cross of St. Euphrosyne preserved the text of the inscription, which was left on the surface of the cross by its creator, the Polotsk master Lazar Bogsha (Boguslav). The Cross of St. Euphrosyne is one of the main spiritual shrines of Belarus and a recognized masterpiece of medieval jewelry art.

Nowadays temporal rings, kolts and many other works of medieval Russian jewelry art are collected in museums. Particularly rich collections belong to the State Historical Museum, the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin and the Patriarchal Sacristy.

PROTORENESSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

SCULPTURE

PAINTING

EARLY REVIVAL

ARCHITECTURE

SCULPTURE

PAINTING

HIGH REVIVAL

DONATO BRAMANTE

LEONARDO DA VINCI

RAPHAEL

Michelangelo

GEORGIONE

TITIAN

LATE REVIVAL

ANDREA PALLADIO

PAOLO VERONESE

TINTORETTO

ART OF MANERISM

Humanity has its own biography: infancy, adolescence and maturity. The era, which is called the Renaissance, is most likely to be likened to the period of beginning maturity with its inherent romance, the search for individuality, the struggle against the prejudices of the past. Without the Renaissance there would be no modern civilization. The cradle of Renaissance art, or Renaissance (French Renaissance) was Italy.

The art of the Renaissance arose on the basis of humanism (from lat. humanus - “human”) - a trend of social thought that originated in the 14th century. in Italy, and then during the second half of the XV-XVI centuries. spread to other European countries. Humanism proclaimed the highest value of man and his good. Humanists believed that every person has the right to freely develop as a person, realizing their abilities. The ideas of humanism were most vividly and fully embodied in art, the main theme of which was a beautiful, harmoniously developed person with unlimited spiritual and creative abilities.

Humanists were inspired by antiquity, which served for them as a source of knowledge and a model of artistic creativity. The great past, constantly reminding of itself in Italy, was perceived at that time as the highest perfection, while the art of the Middle Ages seemed inept, barbaric. Arising in the 16th century the term "revival" meant the emergence of a new art, reviving classical antiquity, ancient culture. Nevertheless, the art of the Renaissance owes much to the artistic tradition of the Middle Ages. The old and the new were in inseparable connection and confrontation.

With all the contradictory diversity and richness of the origins, the art of the Renaissance is a phenomenon marked by a deep and fundamental novelty. It laid the foundations of the European culture of modern times. All major art forms - painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture - have changed tremendously.

Creatively revised principles of the ancient order system were established in architecture (see the article “The Art of Ancient Hellas”), new types of public buildings were formed. Painting was enriched with a linear and airy perspective, knowledge of the anatomy and proportions of the human body. Earthly content penetrated the traditional religious themes of works of art. Increased interest in ancient mythology, history, everyday scenes, landscapes, portraits. Along with the monumental wall paintings that adorn architectural structures, a picture appeared, oil painting arose.

Art has not yet completely broken away from the craft, but the creative individuality of the artist, whose activity at that time was extremely diverse, has already taken the first place. The universal talent of the masters of the Renaissance is striking - they often worked in the field of architecture, sculpture, painting, combined their passion for literature,

*Antiquity - the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, as well as countries and peoples whose culture developed in contact with ancient Greek and Roman traditions.

**Linear perspective is a way of depicting a three-dimensional object on a plane. Linear perspective methods allow you to create the illusion of spatial depth and generally correspond to the features of the photographic image of space and objects. Aerial perspective - a method by which the artist conveys distant objects, softening their outlines and reducing the brightness of color.

Michelaigelo Buonarroti. Copper snake. Fresco. XVI V.

Michelangelo Buonarroti. Prophet Jeremiah. Fresco. XVI V.

The Sistine Chapel. Vatican.

Michelangelo Buonarroti. Terrible Judgment. Sinner. Fresco. XVI V. The Sistine Chapel. Vatican.

poetry and philosophy with the study of the exact sciences. The concept of a creatively rich, or "Renaissance", personality subsequently became a household word.

In the art of the Renaissance, the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension of the world and man were closely intertwined. Its cognitive meaning was inextricably linked with sublime poetic beauty; in its striving for naturalness, it did not descend to petty everyday life. Art has become a universal spiritual need.

The formation of the Renaissance culture in Italy took place in economically independent cities. In the rise and flourishing of the art of the Renaissance, the Church and the magnificent courts of uncrowned sovereigns (ruling wealthy families) - the largest patrons and customers of works of painting, sculpture and architecture - played a large role. The main centers of Renaissance culture were at first the cities of Florence, Siena, Pisa, then Padua, Ferrara, Genoa, Milan, and later, in the second half of the 15th century, rich merchant Venice. In the XVI century. Rome became the capital of the Italian Renaissance. Starting from that time, local centers of art, except for Venice, have lost their former importance.

In the era of the Italian Renaissance, it is customary to distinguish several periods: Proto-Renaissance(second half of the 13th-14th centuries), early Renaissance(XV century), High Renaissance(late 15th - first decades of the 16th century), later Renaissance(the last two thirds of the 16th century). Jewelry artAncientRus'. M.: 1972. Sedova M.V.- Jewelry products ancient Novgorod X-XV centuries. M., 1981 ...

- this is a phenomenon that covers the culture of Kievan Rus is rooted in the depths of the folk culture of the Slavic tribes

Document

The similarity is not accidental. IN ancient Kyiv jewelryart, in particular the craftsmanship of cloisonne enamel, was ... Kyiv masters. The vast majority of monuments jewelryartAncientRus' anonymous. Archaeologists, finding the remains of workshops...

Approximate basic educational program direction of preparation 073900 theory and art history

Main educational program

N.N. JewelryartAncientRus'. M., 1972. Tolochko P.P. Ancient Kyiv. K., 1983. Utkin P.I. Russians jewelry decorations. Chapter Jewelryart Kyiv Rus' and Russians...