Interpersonal relationships. Place and nature of interpersonal relationships

19.06.2019

In social literature, various points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relations are "located" primarily in relation to the entire system of social relations (economic, social, political, ideological). Sometimes they are considered on a par with social relations, at the base of them, or, on the contrary, at the highest level.

The point of view, according to which interpersonal relations permeate all the elements of the system of social relations, as they arise inside a certain type of system, and not outside them - "below", "above" or "sideways", seems to be constructive. With this approach, interpersonal relations seem to mediate the impact on the personality from the broader social whole. We are again faced with the fact that through interpersonal relations, impersonal social relations are realized in the activities of specific individuals, in the acts of their communication and interaction. For each participant in meticulous relations, the latter seem to be almost the only reality of whatever relations may be in general. Despite the fact that in real life the content of interpersonal relations is ultimately some kind of social relations, i.e. certain social activities, the essence of these relations remains largely hidden. This means that although in the process of interpersonal relations, and therefore social ones, people exchange thoughts and become aware of their relationships, this awareness often does not go further than the knowledge that people entered into interpersonal relationships.

Individual moments of social relations are presented to their participants as just their interpersonal relationships, which are perceived accordingly: "evil teacher", "crafty merchant", "soulless official", etc. Quite often the motives of behavior are explained by this very, lying on the surface, picture of relations, and not at all by actual objective relations. Everything is further complicated by the fact that interpersonal relations are the real reality of social relations - outside of them there are no “pure” social relations somewhere. Therefore, in almost all group interactions, their participants act simultaneously in two qualities - as performers of an impersonal social role and as unique human personalities.

Each side in the system of interpersonal relations is bound by special rights and responsibilities. This makes it possible to introduce the concept of "interpersonal role" as a fixation of a person's position in the system of not social relations, but only group ties, based not on his objective place in this system, but only on the individual psychological characteristics of the individual.

Interpersonal roles that arise when people compete for similar interests include rival, enemy, conspirator, and ally. And in situations, for example, cooperation can be “colleague”, “partner”, “supplier”, “client”, “fan”, etc. board "," scapegoat ", etc.

Strictly speaking, there is a difference between interpersonal and social roles (the latter are discussed in the topic "Psychology of the social role behavior of a person"). For now, we will only note that despite the fact that both types of roles can be determined by the uniqueness of the expectations of the participants in interpersonal relations, interpersonal and social roles are different.

Social roles are standardized and impersonal. The rights and responsibilities remain the same regardless of who plays these roles. However, the rights and responsibilities that are established in interpersonal roles depend entirely on the individual characteristics of the participants, their feelings and preferences. Each person implements his own type of interaction and communication with a partner, adapting to the requirements presented to him by specific individuals with whom he comes into contact. Nevertheless, the discovery of personality traits in the style of performing a social role provokes responses in other members of the group, and, thus, a certain system of interpersonal relations arises in the group.

Their nature differs significantly from the nature of social relations. How? The most important specific feature of interpersonal relationships is the emotional basis. It is she who gives grounds for considering interpersonal relations as a factor in the psychological climate in social communities.

The emotional component of interpersonal relationships reflects the fact that these relationships themselves arise and develop under the influence of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. It is clear that the list of such feelings and emotional manifestations is limitless, and yet their diversity can be reduced to three large groups.

1. Feelings that bring people together, unite people (conjunctive). In this case, each of the parties considers the other as a desired object, in relation to which there is a willingness to cooperate.

2. Feelings separating people (disjunctive). Then each of the parties appears as unacceptable, undesirable for the other side, and joint actions, not to mention cooperation between such individuals, become practically either impossible or ineffective.

3. Neutral feelings. Express a state of uncertainty in interpersonal relationships. Kayutonko noted by the American social psychologist K. Horney, people are divided into such large groups as:

People-oriented (towards them);

People-oriented;

People-oriented. Relationships are manifested in:

Consent or disagreement;

Likes or dislikes;

Understanding or misunderstanding;

Empathy and empathy or lack thereof, etc.

Relationships have their own structure, which consists of:

The way of expression.

In the socio-psychological literature, various points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relations are "located", primarily with respect to the system of social relations. The nature of interpersonal relations can be correctly understood if they are not placed on a par with social relations, but if we see in them a special series of relations that arise within each type of social relations, not outside them.

The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is the emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be viewed as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. In the Russian school of psychology, three types or levels of emotional manifestations of a personality are distinguished: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all types of these emotional manifestations.

Relationships between people do not develop only on the basis of direct emotional contacts. Activity itself sets another series of relationships mediated by it. That is why it is an extremely important and difficult task of social psychology to analyze simultaneously two series of relationships in a group: both interpersonal and mediated by joint activity, i.e. ultimately the social relations behind them.

All this raises a very acute question of the methodological means of such an analysis. Traditional social psychology focused mainly its attention on interpersonal relationships, therefore, in relation to their study, an arsenal of methodological tools was developed much earlier and more fully. The main of these means is the sociometry method, widely known in social psychology, proposed by the American researcher J. Moreno, for whom it is an application to his special theoretical position. Although the failure of this concept has long been criticized, the methodology developed within this theoretical framework has proven to be very popular.

Thus, we can say that interpersonal relationships are viewed as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. But to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relationships in order to change, improve and improve them, the sociometric technique is used, the founder of which is the American psychiatrist and social psychologist J. Moreno.

ESSENCE OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Interpersonal relationships is a set of connections that develop between people in the form of feelings, judgments and appeals to each other.

Interpersonal relationships include:

1) perception and understanding by people of each other;

2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and sympathy);

3) interaction and behavior (in particular, role-based).

Components of interpersonal relationships:

1) cognitive component- includes all cognitive mental processes: sensations, perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Thanks to this component, there is a cognition of the individual psychological characteristics of partners in joint activities and mutual understanding between people. The characteristics of mutual understanding are:

a) adequacy - the accuracy of the mental reflection of the perceived personality;

b) identification - an individual's identification of his personality with the personality of another individual;

2) the emotional component- includes positive or negative experiences that arise in a person during interpersonal communication with other people:

a) likes or dislikes;

b) satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc .;

c) empathy - an emotional response to the experiences of another person, which can manifest itself in the form of empathy (experiencing those feelings that the other is experiencing), empathy (personal attitude to the experiences of another) and complicity (empathy, accompanied by assistance);

3) behavioral component- includes facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, speech and actions that express the relationship of a given person to other people, to the group as a whole. He plays a leading role in regulating relationships. The effectiveness of interpersonal relations is assessed by the state of satisfaction - dissatisfaction of the group and its members.

Types of interpersonal relationships:

1) relations of production- are formed between employees of organizations when solving production, educational, economic, household and other problems and presuppose fixed rules of behavior of employees in relation to each other. Divided into relationships:

a) vertically - between managers and subordinates;

b) horizontally - relations between employees with the same status;

c) diagonally - the relationship between the leaders of one production unit with the rank and file of another;

2) everyday relationships- are formed outside of work on vacation and at home;

3) formal (official) relationship- normatively stipulated relationships, enshrined in official documents;

4) informal (informal) relationships - relationships that really develop in relationships between people and are manifested in preferences, likes or dislikes, mutual assessments, authority, etc.

The nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by such personal characteristics as gender, nationality, age, temperament, health status, profession, experience of communicating with people, self-esteem, the need for communication, etc. Stages of development of interpersonal relationships:

1) the stage of acquaintance - the first stage - the emergence of mutual contact, mutual perception and assessment of each other by people, which largely determines the nature of the relationship between them;

2) the stage of friendly relations - the emergence of interpersonal relations, the formation of an internal attitude of people to each other on the rational (awareness of the merits and demerits of each other by interacting people) and emotional levels (the emergence of corresponding experiences, emotional response, etc.);

3) companionship - rapprochement of views and support to each other; characterized by trust.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Educational institution "Belarusian State University of Culture and Arts"

in social psychology

Interpersonal relationships

Introduction

1. Interpersonal relationships

2. Communication

2.1 The essence of communication

2.3 Communication structure

2.4 Types of communication

2.5 Forms of communication

2.6 Levels of communication

3. Interrelation of communication and relationship

Conclusion

List of sources used

INTRODUCTION

The famous French writer and thinker A. Saint-Exupery, the author of a beautiful fairy tale about the Little Prince, evaluating the importance of communication in human life, defined it as "the only luxury that a person has." The reality and necessity of communication are determined by the joint activities of people. It is in the process of communication and only in communication that the essence of a person can manifest itself.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships with people close to us; it is the relationship between parents and children, husband and wife, brother and sister. Of course, close personal relationships are not limited to the circle of the family, in such relationships are often people who live together under the influence of various circumstances.

A common factor in these relationships is various kinds of feelings of affection, love, and devotion, as well as a desire to maintain that relationship. If your boss is making your life difficult, you can say goodbye to him; if the seller in the store did not pay enough attention to you, you will not go there again; if the employee (s) acts disloyal towards you, you prefer not to communicate with him (her), etc., if possible.

But if troubles arise between us and the people close to us, this usually becomes of paramount importance for us. Do many people come to a psychologist because of a bad relationship with their hairdresser? On the other hand, we see a lot of people seeking advice and assistance in domestic and family, collective troubles.

Problems related to interpersonal relations for several centuries have not only not lost their relevance, but are becoming increasingly important for many social sciences and humanities. Analyzing interpersonal relations and the possibility of achieving mutual understanding in it, it is possible to explain many social problems of the development of society, the family and the individual. Being an integral attribute of human life, interpersonal relationship plays a big role in all spheres of life. At the same time, the quality of interpersonal relations depends on communication, on the level of understanding achieved.

The role of communication in an interpersonal relationship, despite the increased interest in it in a number of social sciences and humanities, is still not sufficiently studied. Therefore, the choice of the topic of my work is conditioned by the following points:

1. The need to clearly distinguish the category of communication from the area of interrelated categories of relationship;

2. An attempt to structure interpersonal relationships by levels of communication.

3. The need of society to resolve interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts associated with misunderstanding.

The purpose of this work is to comprehend the role of communication in interpersonal relations, as well as in an attempt to structure interpersonal relationships by levels of communication.

interpersonal relationship

1. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

1.1 Place and nature of interpersonal relationships

1.2 The essence of interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal relationships are a set of connections that develop between people in the form of feelings, judgments and appeals to each other.

Interpersonal relationships include:

1) perception and understanding by people of each other;

2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and sympathy);

3) interaction and behavior (in particular, role-based).

Components of interpersonal relationships:

1) cognitive component - includes all cognitive mental processes: sensations, perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Thanks to this component, there is a cognition of the individual psychological characteristics of partners in joint activities and mutual understanding between people. The characteristics of mutual understanding are:

a) adequacy - the accuracy of the mental reflection of the perceived personality;

b) identification - an individual's identification of his personality with the personality of another individual;

2) the emotional component - includes positive or negative experiences that arise in a person during interpersonal communication with other people:

a) likes or dislikes;

b) satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc .;

3) behavioral component - includes facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, speech and actions that express the relationship of a given person to other people, to the group as a whole. He plays a leading role in regulating relationships. The effectiveness of interpersonal relationships is assessed by the state of satisfaction - dissatisfaction of the group and its members.

Types of interpersonal relationships:

1) production relations - are formed between employees of organizations when solving production, educational, economic, household and other problems and presuppose fixed rules of behavior of employees in relation to each other. Divided into relationships:

a) vertically - between managers and subordinates;

b) horizontally - relations between employees with the same status;

c) diagonally - the relationship between the leaders of one production unit with the rank and file of another;

2) everyday relationships - they develop outside of work on vacation and at home;

3) formal (official) relations - normatively stipulated relationships, enshrined in official documents;

4) informal (unofficial) relationships - relationships that really develop in relationships between people and are manifested in preferences, likes or dislikes, mutual assessments, authority, etc.

3) companionship - rapprochement of views and support to each other; characterized by trust.

2. COMMUNICATION

2.1 The essence of communication

Interpersonal communication is a necessary condition for the existence of people, without which it is impossible to fully form not only individual mental functions, processes and properties of a person, but also the personality as a whole. That is why the study of this most complex mental phenomenon as a systemic formation with a multilevel structure and only its inherent characteristics is relevant for psychological science.

The essence of interpersonal communication is human-human interaction. This is what makes it different from other types of activity, when a person interacts with an object or thing.

Individuals interacting with this satisfy their need to communicate with each other, to exchange information, etc. For example, a discussion by two passers-by of a conflict situation, which they have just witnessed, or communication when young people get to know each other.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, interpersonal communication is almost always interwoven into one or another activity and acts as a condition for its implementation.

Interpersonal communication is not only a necessary component of people's activities, the implementation of which involves their cooperation, but also a prerequisite for the normal functioning of their communities (for example, a school class or a production team of workers). When comparing the nature of interpersonal communication in these associations, attention is drawn to both the similarity and the difference between them.

The similarity lies in the fact that communication in them is a necessary condition for being, these associations, a factor on which the success of solving the tasks facing them depends.

Communication is influenced not only by the main activity for a given community, but also by what this community itself is. For example, if this is a school class, then it is important to know to what extent it is formed as a collective, what evaluative standards prevail in it, if a team - then what is the degree of development of labor activity, the level of production qualifications of each employee, etc.

The peculiarities of interpersonal interaction in any community are largely determined by how its members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they mainly evoke in each other and what style of behavior they choose.

The communities to which a person belongs form the standards of communication, set the patterns of behavior that a person learns to follow on a daily basis when interacting with other people. These communities directly affect the development of his assessments, which determine his perception of other people, relationships and style of communication with them. Moreover, the more authoritative the community is in the eyes of a person, the stronger the impact.

Interacting with other people, a person can simultaneously act as both a subject and an object of communication. As a subject, he cognizes his partner, determines his attitude towards him (it can be interest, indifference or hostility), influences him in order to solve a specific problem. In turn, he himself is an object of knowledge for the one with whom he communicates. The partner addresses his feelings to him and tries to influence him. It should be emphasized that the presence of a person simultaneously in two "hypostases" - an object and a subject - is characteristic of any type of direct communication between people, whether it is communication of one student with another or student and teacher.

Communication, being one of the main types of human activity, not only constantly reveals the essential characteristics of the personality as an object and subject of communication, but also affects the entire course of its further formation, primarily on such blocks of properties in which a person's attitude to other people is expressed and to yourself. In turn, the changes taking place in people under the pressure of unfolding communication affect, to one degree or another, such basic personality traits, in which its relationship to various social institutions and communities of people, nature, social and personal property, and work is manifested.

2.2 Theoretical approaches to the study of communication

Informational approaches are based on three main principles:

2) a person is a kind of screen onto which the transmitted information is "projected" after its perception and processing;

3) there is a certain space in which discrete organisms and objects of limited volume interact. Within the framework of the information approach, two main models have been developed:

1) the model of K. Shannon and W. Weaver, representing changes in messages into various images, signs, signals, symbols, languages or codes and their subsequent decoding. The model included five elements organized in a linear order: information source - information transmitter (encoder) - channel for transmitting signals - information receiver (decoder) - information receiver. Later, it was supplemented by such concepts as "feedback" (the response of the recipient of information), "noise" (distortion and interference in the message as it passes through the channel), "filters" (message transformers when it reaches the encoder or leaves the decoder) and others. The main disadvantage of this model is the underestimation of other approaches to the study of the problem of communication;

2) a model of communication exchange, which included:

a) communication conditions;

b) communication behavior;

c) communication restrictions on the choice of communication strategy;

d) criteria of interpretation that determine and guide the way people perceive and evaluate their behavior in relation to each other.

Interactive approaches - consider communication as a situation of joint presence, which is mutually established and supported by people with the help of various forms of behavior and external attributes (appearance, objects, environment, etc.). Within the framework of interaction approaches, five models of communication organization have been developed:

1) a linguistic model, according to which all interactions are formed and combined from 50-60 elementary movements and postures of the human body, and behavioral acts formed from these units are organized according to the principle of the organization of sounds in words;

2) the model of social skill is based on the idea of learning to communicate in the communication itself;

3) the equilibrium model assumes that any change in behavior is usually compensated by another change, and vice versa (for example, a dialogue is a monologue, a combination of questions and answers);

4) the program model of social interaction assumes that the general structure of interpersonal interaction is generated by the action of at least three types of programs:

a) a program dealing with simple coordination of movements;

b) a program that controls the change in the types of activity of individuals in a situation where there are obstacles or uncertainties;

c) a program that manages the complex task of meta-communication.

These programs are assimilated by individuals as they learn and make it possible to organize heterogeneous behavioral material. They are "launched" depending on the meaningful context of a particular situation, task and social organization;

5) the system model considers interaction as a configuration of behavior systems that control the exchange of speech utterances and the use of the space and territory of interaction.

The relational approach is based on the fact that communication is a system of relationships that people develop with each other, with society and the environment in which they live. Information is understood as any change in any part of this system, causing a change in other parts. People, animals or other organisms are an integral part of the communication process from the moment of birth to the moment of death.

2.3 Communication structure

In the structure of communication, there are:

1) the communicative side; 2) the interactive side;

3) the perceptual side.

The communicative side of communication is expressed in the exchange of information between people.

Features of the process of exchanging information in the process of human communication:

1) there is not only the transfer of information, but also its formation, refinement and development;

2) the exchange of information is combined with the attitude of people towards each other;

3) there is a mutual influence and influence of people on each other;

4) the communicative influence of people on each other is possible only if the codification systems of the communicator (sender) and recipient (receiver) coincide;

5) the emergence of specific communication barriers of a social and psychological nature is possible. Structural components of communication as a communicative activity:

1) the subject of communication is a communicator;

2) the object of communication is the recipient;

3) the subject of communication - the content of the information sent;

4) communication actions - units of communicative activity;

5) means of communication - operations with the help of which communication actions are carried out;

6) a product of communication - education of a material and spiritual nature as a result of communication.

The interactive side of communication is manifested in the interaction of people with each other, i.e. exchange of information, motives, actions. The purpose of interaction is to meet their needs, interests, goals, plans, intentions. Interaction types:

1) positive - interactions aimed at organizing joint activities: cooperation; agreement; device; association;

2) negative - interactions aimed at disrupting joint activities, creating obstacles for it: competition; conflict; opposition; dissociation. Factors affecting the type of interaction:

1) the degree of unity of approaches to solving problems;

2) understanding of responsibilities and rights;

3) ways to solve emerging problems, etc.

The perceptual side of communication is expressed in the process of perception, study and assessment of each other by partners.

Structural elements of social perception:

1) the subject of interpersonal perception - one who perceives (studies) in the process of communication;

2) the object of perception - the one who is perceived (cognized) in the process of communication;

3) the process of cognition - includes cognition, feedback, elements of communication.

In the process of communication, a person appears at once in two hypostases: as an object and as a subject of cognition.

Factors influencing the process of interpersonal perception:

1) characteristics of the subject: gender differences (women more accurately identify emotional states, strengths and weaknesses of the individual, men - the level of intelligence); age, temperament (extroverts perceive more accurately, introverts appreciate); social intelligence (the higher the level of social and general knowledge, the more accurate the assessment in perception); mental condition; health status; attitudes - prior assessment of objects of perception; value orientations; level of socio-psychological competence, etc.

2) features of the object: physical appearance (anthropological - height, physique, skin color, etc., physiological - respiration, blood circulation, functional - posture, posture and gait, and paralinguistic - facial expressions, gestures and body movements); social appearance: social role, appearance, proxemic features of communication (distance and location of communicants), speech and extralinguistic characteristics (semantics, grammar and phonetics), activity characteristics;

3) the relationship between the subject and the object of perception;

4) the situation in which perception occurs.

2.4 Types of communication

Types of communication by means:

1) verbal communication - carried out through speech and is the prerogative of a person. It provides a person with wide communication opportunities and is much richer than all types and forms of non-verbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it;

2) non-verbal communication occurs with the help of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contacts (tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person). Non-verbal forms and means of communication are inherent not only in humans, but also in some animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins). In most cases, a person's non-verbal forms and means of communication are innate. They allow people to interact with each other, achieving mutual understanding on an emotional and behavioral level. The most important non-verbal component of the communication process is the ability to listen.

Types of communication by purpose:

1) biological communication is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs and is necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body;

2) social communication is aimed at expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual. Types of communication by content:

1) material - the exchange of objects and products of activity, which serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs;

2) cognitive - the transmission of information that expands horizons, improving and developing abilities;

3) conditioned - the exchange of mental or physiological states, influencing each other, calculated to bring a person into a certain physical or mental state;

4) activity - the exchange of actions, operations, skills;

5) motivational communication consists in transferring certain motives, attitudes or readiness to action in a certain direction to each other.

By mediation:

1) direct communication - occurs with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.;

2) mediated communication - associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchange of information (natural (stick, thrown stone, footprint on the ground, etc.) or cultural objects (sign systems, symbols recording on various media, printing , radio, television, etc.));

3) direct communication is based on personal contacts and direct perception of people communicating with each other in the very act of communication (for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people, etc.);

4) indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, which may be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, interethnic, group, family levels). Other types of communication:

1) business communication - communication, the purpose of which is to reach any clear agreement or agreement;

2) educational communication - involves the purposeful impact of one participant on another with a fairly clear idea of the desired result;

3) diagnostic communication - communication, the purpose of which is to formulate a certain idea of the interlocutor or to receive any information from him (such is the communication between a doctor and a patient, etc.);

4) intimate-personal communication - it is possible when partners are interested in establishing and maintaining trusting and deep contact, arises between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.

2.5 Forms of communication

1) monologue - when only one of the partners is assigned the role of an active participant, and the other - a passive performer (for example, a lecture, notation, etc.);

2) dialogue - cooperation of participants - interlocutors or communication partners is characteristic (for example, conversation, conversation);

3) polylogical - multilateral communication, which has the character of a struggle for a communicative initiative.

2.6 Levels of communication

In foreign and domestic psychology, there are different views on the levels of communication.

1. Levels of communication according to B.G. Ananyev:

1) micro level - consists of the smallest elements of interpersonal communication with the immediate environment with which a person lives and most often comes into contact (family, friends);

2) meso-level - communication at the level of the school, production team, etc .;

3) macro level - includes such large structures as management and trade.

2. Levels of communication according to E. Bern:

1) rituals are a certain order of actions by which a custom is performed and consolidated;

2) pastime (watching TV, reading books, dancing, etc.);

3) games - activities that do not result in the production of any product;

4) intimacy - intimate relationships;

5) activity - a specific type of human activity aimed at cognition and transformation of the surrounding world.

The most common in Russian psychology is the following level system:

1) primitive level - involves the implementation of a communication scheme in which the interlocutor is not a partner, but a necessary or interfering object. In this case, the phases of contact are performed in the annex from above or (with a frankly strong partner) from below. A similar level of communication is offered in a state of intoxication, anger, in a state of conflict, etc .;

2) manipulative level - the “partner - rival” scheme is implemented in a game that must be won without fail, and the gain is a benefit (material, everyday or psychological). At the same time, the manipulator catches and tries to use the partner's weak points;

3) standardized level - communication based on standards, when one of the partners (or both) do not want contact, but one cannot do without it;

4) the conventional level - the level of ordinary equal human communication within the accepted rules of behavior. This level requires partners to have a high culture of communication, which can be regarded as an art and to master which another person has to work on himself for years. It is optimal for resolving personal and interpersonal problems in human contacts;

5) play level - characterized in the same way as conventional, but with an increased positive focus on the partner, interest in him and the desire to generate a similar interest in himself from the partner. The main thing in the game is to intrigue and interest a partner. At this level, the emerging human connection is more appreciated, rather than the informative component of communication. Ideal for teaching;

6) the level of business communication - in comparison with the conventional level, it implies an increased focus on a partner as a participant in collective activity. The main thing at this level is the degree of mental and business activity of the partner, his involvement in the general task. Ideal for group activities, brainstorming sessions, etc .;

7) spiritual level - the highest level of human communication, which is characterized by mutual dissolution in a partner, high spontaneity of thought and feeling, ultimate freedom of self-expression; the partner is perceived as a bearer of the spiritual principle, and this principle awakens in us a feeling that is akin to awe.

2.7 Functions and means of communication

Communication functions are the roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of a person's social life:

1) the information and communication function consists in the exchange of information between individuals. The constituent elements of communication are: the communicator (transmits information), the content of the message, the recipient (receives the message). The effectiveness of the transfer of information is manifested in the understanding of information, its acceptance or rejection, assimilation. For the implementation of the information and communication function, it is necessary to have a single or similar system of codification / decodification of messages. The transmission of any information is possible through various sign systems;

2) incentive function - stimulation of partners' activity for the organization of joint actions;

3) integrative function - the function of bringing people together;

4) the function of socialization - communication contributes to the development of skills for human interaction in society according to the norms and rules adopted in it;

5) coordination function - coordination of actions in the implementation of joint activities;

6) the function of understanding - adequate perception and understanding of information;

7) the regulatory and communicative (interactive) function of communication is aimed at regulating and correcting behavior in the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction;

8) the affective-communicative function of communication consists in influencing the emotional sphere of a person, which can be purposeful or involuntary.

Means of communication - methods of coding, transmission, processing and decryption of information transmitted in the process of communication. They are verbal and non-verbal. Verbal means of communication are words with meanings assigned to them. Words can be spoken aloud (oral speech), written (written speech), replaced by gestures in the blind, or spoken to oneself. Oral speech is a simpler and more economical form of verbal means. It is divided into:

1) dialogical speech, in which two interlocutors take part;

2) monologue speech - a speech made by one person.

Written speech is used when it is impossible to communicate verbally or when accuracy, accuracy of each word is needed

Non-verbal communication is a sign system that complements and enhances verbal communication, and sometimes even replaces it. About 55-65% of information is transmitted with the help of non-verbal means of communication. Non-verbal means of communication include:

1) visual aids:

a) kinesthetic means are the visually perceived movements of another person that perform an expressive-regulatory function in communication. Kinesics include expressive movements, manifested in facial expressions, posture, gesture, gaze, gait;

b) gaze direction and eye contact;

c) facial expression;

d) eye expression;

e) posture - the position of the body in space ("foot to foot", crossed arms, legs, etc.);

f) distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);

g) skin reactions (redness, perspiration);

h) communication aids (physique features (gender, age)) and means of their transformation (clothing, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoo, mustache, beard, cigarette, etc.);

2) acoustic (sound):

a) related to speech (volume, timbre, intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, speech pauses and their localization in the text); 6) not related to speech (laughter, gnashing of teeth, crying, coughing, sighing, etc.);

3) tactile - related to touch:

a) physical impact (leading a blind person by the hand, etc.);

b) Tackevik (shaking hands, slapping on the shoulder).

3. RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNICATION AND RELATIONSHIP

In psychological science, a lot of research is carried out in which one or another simpler or more complex phenomenon is illuminated by itself, not in connection with other phenomena, and this always impoverishes the value of the results obtained, because it is possible to truly understand the essence of any phenomenon, only by comprehending it in interaction with other phenomena.

The foregoing is fully applicable to the state of studying such a complex psychological phenomenon as communication, as well as such personal education as an attitude.

When they talk about communication, they usually mean the interaction between people, carried out using the means of verbal and non-verbal influence and with the aim of achieving changes in the cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioral spheres of the persons participating in the communication. As you know, attitude is understood as a psychological phenomenon, the essence of which is the emergence of a person's mental education, accumulating the results of cognition of a specific object of reality (in communication, this is another person or a community of people), the integration of all emotional responses to this object, as well as behavioral answers to it.

The most important mental component of the relationship is the motivational-emotional component, which signals the valence of the relationship - positive, negative, contradictory or indifferent.

When one person enters into communication with another, then both of them fix the peculiarities of each other's external appearance, “read” the experienced states, perceive and interpret the behavior in one way or another, in one way or another decipher the goals and motives of this behavior. And the appearance, and the state, and the behavior, and the goals and motives attributed to a person always cause some kind of attitude in the person communicating with him, and it can be differentiated in character and strength depending on which side in the other person caused it.

A special problem in the study of the interdependencies of communication and relationship is to establish the correspondence between the nature and ways of expressing the relationship. Forming as individuals in a specific social environment, people also learn the language of expression of relations characteristic of this environment. Without speaking now about the peculiarities of the expression of relations noted among representatives of different ethnic communities, it is important to keep in mind that even within the boundaries of one ethnic community, but in its different social groups, the named language can have its very specific specifics.

Both action and deed can become a form of expression of a relationship.

Interpersonal communication differs from inter-role communication in that the participants in such communication try, solving their problems, to make an amendment when choosing behavior that conveys an attitude, for individually unique characteristics of each other. It is pertinent to add that the ability to psychologically skillfully instruct the form of expression of their relations is extremely necessary for persons whose main activity is the upbringing of children, youth and adults.

Discussing the problem of the relationship between communication and relationship, as well as the relationship between the content of the relationship and the form of its expression, it should be emphasized that a person's choice of the most psychologically appropriate form of expressing his attitude in communication occurs without tension and conspicuous deliberation, if he has formed the mental properties of the personality, which are essential for successful interpersonal communication. This is primarily the ability for identification and decentration, empathy and self-reflection.

For the real completeness of the analysis of communication and its connections with relations, it is necessary to evaluate at least the main objective and subjective characteristics of this process, also bearing in mind both one and the other people interacting in it (if this is dyadic communication). These connections between different characteristics of communication and relations, traced in the very first approximation, show how great their importance is in the subjective world of each person, how important their role is in determining the mental well-being of a person, in determining the picture of his behavior. Therefore, it is extremely important to develop systematic research at the theoretical, experimental and applied levels of all the most significant aspects of the interdependencies of communication and attitude. When planning these studies, it is necessary to clearly see that all the main areas of psychological science should take part in the study of the interrelationships of communication and relations, and it is necessary for teachers who are engaged in the development of the theory and methodological tools of education.

CONCLUSION

Considering interpersonal relationships, we can conclude that interpersonal relationships are subjectively experienced connections between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of interpersonal interaction, i.e. mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of their joint activities and communication.

Interpersonal relationships are a system of attitudes, orientations and expectations of group members relative to each other, determined by the content and organization of joint activities and the values on which human communication is based. in this case, a mismatch between the subjectively experienced and objectively existing connections of the individual with other people is possible. In groups of different levels of development.

Interpersonal relationships differ not only quantitatively but also qualitatively. So, in a team, they make up a complex hierarchical structure that develops as it is included in socially significant activities. Experimental research of interpersonal relations is carried out by social psychology using special techniques: Sociometry, Referentometric method, Methods of personality research. Most often in practice, the Sociometric method of J. Moreno is used.

Communication can be characterized as a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a single strategy of interaction, perception and understanding of another person. Accordingly, three sides are distinguished in communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual. Where the communicative side of communication is associated with the identification of the information process between people as active subjects, i.e. taking into account the relationship between partners, their attitudes, goals, intentions, which leads not only to the "movement" of information, but to clarify and enrich the knowledge, information, opinions that people exchange. The means of the communicative process are various sign systems, primarily speech, as well as the optical-kinetic system of signs (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime), para- and extralinguistic systems (intonation, non-speech impregnations in speech, for example, pauses), the system of organizing space and time communication, the system of "eye contact". The interactive side of communication is the construction of a general interaction strategy. There are a number of types of interaction between people, primarily cooperation and competition. The perceptual side of communication includes the process of forming the image of another person, which is achieved by "reading" the physical characteristics of a person, his psychological properties and features of his behavior. The main mechanisms of cognition of another person are identification and reflection.

The most important mental component of the relationship is the motivational-emotional component, which signals the valence of the relationship - positive, negative, contradictory or indifferent.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

1 Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. Textbook for higher educational institutions / G.M. Andreeva. - M .: Aspect Press, 2008 .-- 378 p.

2 Andrienko E.V. Social psychology: a textbook for students of pedagogical universities. Moscow: 2007.

3 Askevis-Leerpe, F. Psychology: a short course / F. Askevis-Leerpe, K. Baruch, A. Cartron; per. with French M.L. Karachun. - M .: AST: Astrel, 2006 .-- 155 p.

4 Bodalev A.A. Psychology of interpersonal communication. Ryazan, 1994.

5 Bodalev A.A. Psychology of communication. Selected psychological works. - 3rd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Publishing house of the Moscow Psychological and Social Institute; Voronezh: Publishing house NPO "MODEK", 2002.- 320s.

6 Big encyclopedia of psychological tests. Moscow: Eksmo Publishing House, 2005 .-- 416 p.

7 Werderber, R., Werderber, K. Psychology of communication. - SPb .: Prime - EVROZNAK, 2003 .-- 320 p.

8 Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of human development. M .: EKSMO, 2003.

9 Gleitman G. Fridlund A., Raisberg D. Fundamentals of Psychology. SPb .: Rech, 2001.

10 Goryanina V.A. Psychology of communication: Textbook for students. Higher. Textbook. Establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002. - 416 p.

11 Druzhinin V.N. The structure and logic of psychological research. Moscow: IP RAS, 1994.

12 Ermolaev O.Yu. Mathematical statistics for psychologists: Textbook / O. Yu. Ermolaev. - 2nd ed., Rev. - M .: Moscow Psychological and Social Institute: Flint, 2003 .-- 336 p.

13 Emelyanov Yu.N., Kuzmin E.S. Theoretical and methodological foundations of social and psychological training. L .: Leningrad State University, 1983 .-- 103 p.

14 Brief psychological dictionary / Comp. L.A. Karpenko; Under. Common ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M .: Politizdat, 1985 .-- 431 p.

16 Krysko V.G. Social psychology: reference dictionary. - Minsk: Harvest, 2004 .-- 688 p.

17 Krysko V.G. Social psychology: Textbook. for universities. 2nd ed. - SPb .: Peter, 2006 .-- 432 p.

18 Leontiev A.N. Activity, consciousness, personality. M .: Meaning: Publishing Center "Academy", 2006.

19 Mokshantsev R.I., Mokshantseva A.V. Social psychology: textbook. A manual for universities. Moscow: 2001.

20 Prutchenkov A.S. Socio-psychological training for interpersonal communication. M., 1991 - 45 p.

21 Psychological tests / Ed. A.A. Karelina: In 2 volumes - M .: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2003. - T.2. - 248 p.

22 Psychology and pedagogy of military command. Study guide. / Ed. VVIA them. V.V. Zhukovsky, 1992.

23 Reber A. Big explanatory psychological dictionary. In 2 volumes. M .: Veche, AST, 2000.

24 Semechkin, N.I. Social psychology: textbook for universities. - SPb .: Peter, 2004 .-- 376 p.

25 Social psychology: textbook for universities / Ed. A.A. Zhuravleva. Moscow: 2003.

26 Handbook of Practical Psychologist. Psychodiagnostics / ed. S.T. Posokhova. - M .: AST; SPb .: Sova, 2005 .-- 671, p.: Ill.

27 Folken Chuck T. Psychology is simple / Per. from English R. Murtazin. - M .: FAIR-PRESS, 2001 .-- 640 p.

28 Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education. M. 1995.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Interaction, social and psychological relations

All socio-psychological phenomena arise, function, change and manifest themselves both in the process and as a result of positive or negative interaction of people as representatives of various social communities. However, their content is determined not only by this interaction, but also by the objective conditions in which the vital activity of a given community unfolds.

Domestic philosophers, sociologists and historians even believe that in the process of human development, interaction has become the initial form of the emergence and subsequent improvement of people as highly organized living beings with an extensive system of various connections between them and the surrounding reality.

In turn, psychological science considers interaction as a process of people influencing each other, giving rise to their mutual connections, relationships, communication and joint experiences.

From this it naturally follows that interaction should be taken as a unit of analysis in social psychology (Obozov N.N., 1979).

In addition, in the process of production and consumption of material goods, people enter into various kinds of connections with each other, which, as already mentioned, are based on the interaction of people.

This is how social relations are formed. Their nature and content are largely determined by the specifics and circumstances of the very interaction of individuals, the goals pursued by specific people, as well as the place and role that they occupy in society.

There is a certain system of social relations. They are based on material relations, a whole series is built on top of them: social, political, ideological, etc., which together constitute a whole system of social relations.

Social relations can be classified on the basis of different criteria: 1) according to the form of manifestation, they are divided into economic (production), legal, ideological, political, moral, religious, aesthetic, etc .; 2) from the point of view of belonging to different subjects, they distinguish between national (interethnic), class and confessional, etc.

relationship; 3) based on the analysis of the functioning of connections between people in society, we can talk about vertical and horizontal relations; 4) by the nature of the regulation, public relations are official and unofficial (Bodalev A.A., 1995).

All types of social relations, in turn, permeate the psychological relations of people, i.e.

subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and are accompanied by various emotional and other experiences of the individuals participating in them. Psychological relations are a living "human tissue" of any social relations (Obozov N.N., 1979).

Thus, first there is an interaction between people, and then, as a consequence, their social and psychological relations.

The difference between social and psychological relations is that the former are by their nature, if I may say so, “material”, are a consequence of a certain property, social and other distribution of roles in society and in most cases are taken for granted, wear in a certain sense impersonal character.

In social relations, first of all, the essential features of social ties between the spheres of human activity, types of labor and communities are revealed.

What does the psychology of interpersonal relationships study?

They manifest an objective dependence on each other of persons performing certain social functions (roles), but at the same time regardless of those specific individuals who, when performing these functions, interact and personify these functions with their personal characteristics (Andreeva G.M., 1980 ).

Psychological relationships are the result of direct contacts between specific people who are able to express their likes and dislikes, to be aware of and experience them.

They are full of emotions and feelings, i.e. the experience and expression by individuals or their groups of their attitude towards interaction with similar subjects of social life.

Psychological relationships are completely personified, as they are purely personal in nature. Their content and specificity are filled, determined and depend on the specific people between whom they arise.

Thus, interaction and psychological (social) relations underlie the correct and initial understanding of all other psychological phenomena.

It is only necessary to make a reservation, or rather always remember that the interaction and psychological (social) relations themselves can be adequately understood through the analysis of the mutual perception and influence of people on each other, the nature of communication between them.

Interaction, psychological (social) relations, people's perception of each other, their mutual influence, communication and mutual understanding between them are one-order, but at the same time, different-level phenomena that are not separable from one another.

Just as society does not exist in the form of an independent “person”, outside of its constituent personalities, so interaction and psychological relations cannot but manifest themselves outside their real perception by people, their influence on each other and communication between them.

However, in the interests of a correct understanding and understanding of each of these phenomena, we must pull them out of the general connection and consider them in isolation.

The life and activity of people is a social process in which their actions are appropriately distributed, coordinated both in relation to each other, to the means and methods of production, and in relation to joint efforts due primarily to material (economic, production) relations.

Return to the table of contents: Social Psychology

Social relations: role and place in society, structure, management problems

The nature of social relations. The role and place of social relations in society.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

The system of social relations. Varieties of social relations. Problems of managing public relations in an open and closed society.

Society at any stage of its development and in any specific manifestation is a complex interweaving of many different connections and relationships of people.

The life of a society is not limited to the life of its constituent individuals. A complex and contradictory tangle of human relations, actions and their results is what constitutes society.

If individual people, their associations and actions are quite obvious, graphic, then connections and relationships between people are often hidden, ethereal, immaterial.

That is why the enormous role of these invisible relations in public life was not immediately understood. The study of society, which began in the middle of the 19th century, from the point of view of social relations within the framework of Marxism ("Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are to each other" - concluded Marx), then in the twentieth century continued within the framework of other, non-Marxist schools of thought (for example, P.

Sorokin).

Indeed, there is no society without people. And yet, such an answer is superficial, because it boils down to the empirically ascertained fact of the existence of a totality of people.

At the same time, those inherent in society remain in the shadow communication, which connect disparate elements into a single integral system. These connections are reproduced in the activities of people and are so stable that many generations can replace each other, but the type of connections that characterize this particular society remains. Now the words of K. Marx are becoming clear: "Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are to each other."

It would be wrong to interpret this position in the sense of reducing the entire diversity of the social system to social relations alone.

Marx singles out the most important specific feature of society and at the same time what makes society a system, binds individuals and their disparate actions into a single, albeit internally divided whole. Finding and analyzing such connections - public relations - the greatest merit of K. Marx, an important element of his philosophical concept of society.

But what do they represent?

Social relations are inseparable from activities. They do not exist by themselves, in isolation from the latter, but constitute its social form. So, production activity always takes place in the form that gives this activity a stable character and due to the presence of which production is organized on the scale of society.

It is precisely this organizing role of the internal structure, of the active form that production relations play.

Existing as a form of human activity, social relations have a transpersonal, supra-individual character. It is not the individual with his inclinations and inclinations that determines social relations, but on the contrary: a person, being born, finds already established, functioning social relations.

As a member of a certain society, class, social group, nation, collective, etc., he is involved in various forms of activity and enters on this basis into certain relationships with other people.

Activities and social relations form a person as a social, social being. Socialization of a person occurs as sociality is actively assimilated by him, is transferred into his inner world, becomes a general scheme of action given to him by society and passed through his individual experience.

The formation of a person as a social being is at the same time his formation as a person.

Thus, social relations connect the individual with a social group, with society. And thus they are a means of including the individual in public practice, into sociality.

All activities of large social groups are carried out in the forms of social relations: economic, political, legal, moral. The relations that have developed in society are transformed into a kind of algorithms for the activities of social groups.

This does not mean that social relations are given from above: they are generated by the activity of real people and exist only as forms of this activity.

But having arisen, they have great activity, stability, give the society a qualitative certainty.

The types of social relations are presented in the diagram.

Types of public relations
Economic relations:	Social relations:
	· production	Classes or strata
	Distribution	Communities and social groups
	· exchange	Ethnic groups
	Consumption	· other
Political relations:	Spiritual relationship:
	The state and its bodies	Spiritual activity
	Political parties and their systems	Values and needs
	Public organizations	Spiritual consumption
	Pressure groups	Everyday and theoretical consciousness
	Individuals, etc.	Ideology and public consciousness

SEE MORE:

Attitude- this is the meaning that has for a person, his surroundings, phenomena, people.

Myaschev: relations can be of two types: 1) public, 2) psychological (interpersonal).

Public- this is official, formally fixed, objectified connections.

It is based on objective connections.

The structure of social relations is studied by sociology. In sociological theory, a certain subordination of various types of social relations is revealed, where economic, social, political, ideological and other types of relations are distinguished.

All this taken together is a system of social relations. Their specificity lies in the fact that they are not easy<встречаются>individual with individual and<относятся>to each other, but individuals as representatives of certain social groups (classes, professions or other groups that have developed in the sphere of the division of labor, as well as groups that have developed in the sphere of political life, for example, political parties, etc.).

Such relations are not built on the basis of likes or dislikes, but on the basis of a certain position occupied by everyone in the system of society.

In reality, each individual fulfills not one, but several social roles: he can be an accountant, a father, a union member, a football team player, etc. A number of roles are assigned to a person at birth (for example, to be a woman or a man), others are acquired during life.

However, the social role itself does not determine the activity and behavior of each concrete carrier in detail: it all depends on how much the individual learns and internalizes the role.

Interpersonal relationships: types and features

The act of internalization is determined by a number of individual psychological characteristics of each specific bearer of a given role. Therefore, social relations, although in their essence role-playing, impersonal relations, in reality, in their concrete manifestation acquire a certain<личностную окраску>.

Psychological- this is subjectively experienced relationships and the mutual influence of people.

It is based on emotions, feelings. Interpersonal relationships are a system of attitudes, expectations, orientations, stereotypes through which people perceive and evaluate each other.

Obozov: (according to the degree of emotional involvement) the attitude of acquaintance, friendly, comradely, friendly, intimate-personal: love, conjugal, kindred.

Aronson: sympathy-antipathy, friendship-enmity, love-hate.

All social relations are imbued with interpersonal and mutually condition each other.

In other words, this means that in the objective fabric of social relations there are moments emanating from the conscious will and special goals of individuals. It is here that the social and the psychological collide directly.

The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. In the Russian school of psychology, three types or levels of emotional manifestations of a personality are distinguished: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all types of these emotional manifestations.

However, in social psychology, emotional manifestations usually characterize feelings, and the term is not used in the strictest sense.

It is natural that<набор>these feelings are limitless. However, they can all be summarized in two large groups:

1) conjunctive here are all sorts of bringing people together, uniting their feelings.

In each case of such an attitude, the other side acts as a desired object, in relation to which a readiness for cooperation, for joint actions, etc is demonstrated;

2) disjunctive feelings here include feelings that separate people, when the other side appears as unacceptable, maybe even as a frustrating object, in relation to which there is no desire for cooperation, etc.

The intensity of both kinds of feelings can be very different. The specific level of their development, naturally, cannot be indifferent to the activities of the groups.

At the same time, the analysis of only these interpersonal relations cannot be considered sufficient to characterize the group: in practice, relations between people do not develop only on the basis of direct emotional contacts.

Activity itself sets another series of relationships mediated by it. That is why it is an extremely important and difficult task of social psychology to analyze simultaneously two series of relationships in a group: both interpersonal and mediated by joint activity, i.e.

ultimately the social relations behind them.

studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018. (0.001 s) ...

Psychology PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Review questions

How do the concepts of "man", "individual", "personality", "individuality" differ from each other?

3. In your opinion, is a preschooler or school child a person?

4. Briefly describe the meaning of the basic theories of personality.

What are their strengths and weaknesses?

5. What is the structure of personality needs? How to arrange the structure of needs depending on the increase in social significance for a person?

6. What motives are guided by a person in his activities? Give examples of motivating the activity of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are an independent, complex and intensively studied section of psychological science. The category "communication" is one of the central in psychology along with such categories as "thinking", "behavior", "activity", "personality", "relationships".

The “cross-cutting nature” of the communication problem becomes clear if one of the typical definitions of interpersonal communication is given. Along with communication, the main types of human social activity are also play, work and learning. These types of activities are characterized by specific interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal communication is a process of interaction of at least two persons, aimed at mutual cognition, establishment and development of relationships and involving mutual influence on the states, views, behavior and regulation of joint activities of the participants in this process.

Over the past 20-25 years, the study of the problem of communication has become one of the leading areas of research in psychological science, and especially in social psychology.

Its move to the center of psychological research is explained by a change in the methodological situation that has clearly become apparent in social psychology over the past two decades. From the subject of research, communication simultaneously turned into a method, a principle of studying initially cognitive processes, and then the person as a whole.

Communication is the reality of human relations, which presupposes any form of joint activity of people.

Attention to the problem of communication has increased also due to a sharp increase in the intensity of communication in modern society.

It was noted that in a large city with a million population, a person daily comes into contact with 600 other people, which requires constant control over the emotional sphere.

Communication is not only a subject of psychological research; in this regard, the task of identifying the specific psychological aspect of this category is of utmost importance.

At the same time, the question of the connection between communication and activity is fundamental; one of the methodological principles of disclosing this relationship is the idea of the unity of communication and activity.

Based on this principle, communication is usually understood as the reality of human relations, which presupposes any form of joint activities of people. Moreover, the nature of this connection is interpreted in different ways. Sometimes activity and communication are viewed as two sides of a person's social life; in other cases, communication is usually understood as an element of any activity, and the latter is considered as a condition of communication. Finally, communication can be interpreted as a special kind of activity.

It should be noted that in the overwhelming majority of psychological interpretations of activity, the basis of its definitions and categorical-conceptual apparatus is the “subject-object” relationship, which, after all, covers only one side of a person's social life.

In this regard, it is extremely important to develop a category of communication that reveals another, no less significant side of human social life, namely, the relationship "subject-subject (s)", ᴛ.ᴇ. the very essence of communication.

One can cite the opinion of the famous Russian psychologist L.V. Zankova, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ reflects the notions of the category of communication existing in modern domestic psychology: “I will call communication such a form of interaction between subjects, which is initially motivated by their desire to reveal the mental qualities of each other and in the course of which interpersonal relations are formed between them ...” situations in which interpersonal communication of people is subordinated to a common goal - to solve a specific problem.

The subject-subject approach to the problem of the relationship between communication and activity overcomes the one-sided understanding of activity only as a subject-object relationship.

In Russian psychology, this approach is implemented through the methodological principle of communication as a subject-subject interaction, theoretically and experimentally developed by B.F. Lomov and his staff. Considered in this regard, communication acts as a special independent form of the subject's activity. Its result is not so much a transformed object (material or ideal) as the relationship of a person with a person, with other people. In the process of communication, not only the mutual exchange of activities is carried out, but also ideas, ideas, feelings, the system of relations "subject-subject (s)" is manifested and developed.

In the works of A.

V. Brushlinsky and V. A. Polikarpov, along with this, a critical understanding of this methodological principle is given, and the most famous research cycles are listed, in which all the multifaceted problems of communication in Russian psychological science are analyzed. The essence of psychological impact is reduced to the mutual exchange of information and interaction. From the content side, the psychological impact can be pedagogical, managerial, ideological, etc.

and be carried out at different levels of the psyche: on the conscious and unconscious.

The subject of psychological influence can act as an organizer, performer (communicator) and even a researcher of his own process of influence. The effectiveness of the impact depends on gender, age, social status and many other components of the subject, and most importantly, on his professional and psychological preparedness to influence the communication partner.

The subject of interpersonal influence is multifunctional:

- studies the object and the situation in which the impact is carried out;

- chooses strategy, tactics and means of influence;

- takes into account the signals from the object about the success and failure of the impact;

- organizes opposition to the object (with a possible counter-action of the object on the subject), etc.

In the event that the object of interpersonal influence (recipient) does not agree with the information offered to him and seeks to reduce the effect of the influence exerted on him, the communicator has the opportunity to use the patterns of reflexive control or manipulative influence.

The object of interpersonal influence, itself, being an active element of the system of influence, processes the information offered to it and may not agree with the subject, and in some cases, carry out counterinfluence on the communicator.

The object correlates the information offered to him by the communicator with his existing value orientations and his life experience, after which he makes independent decisions. The characteristics of an object that affect the effectiveness of impact on it include gender, age, nationality, profession, education, experience of participation in communication exchange and other personal characteristics.

The process of interpersonal psychological influence (influence), being in turn a multidimensional system, includes strategy, tactics, means, methods, forms, argumentation and criteria for the effectiveness of influence.

Types and features of interpersonal relationships

A strategy is a means of the subject's actions to achieve the main goal of psychological impact on the recipient. Tactics is the solution of intermediate tasks of psychological influence through the use of various psychological techniques.

In social psychology, verbal (speech) and non-verbal (paralinguistic) features of the means of influence are distinguished.

The methods of influence include persuasion and coercion (at the level of consciousness), as well as suggestion, infection and imitation (at the unconscious level of the psyche). The last three methods are social and psychological. The forms of interpersonal influence are verbal (written and oral) and visual. The argumentation system assumes both worldview (abstract) evidence and information of a specific nature (digital and factual information is easier to remember and compare).

It is advisable to take into account the principles of selection and presentation of information - evidence and satisfaction of the information needs of a particular object, as well as communication barriers (cognitive, socio-psychological, etc.)

Criteria for the effectiveness of influence are divided into strategic (delayed in the future, for example, ideological) and tactical (intermediate), which are guided directly in the process of influencing a partner (speech statements, facial expressions, etc.).

The subject can use the change in psychophysiological, functional, paralinguistic, verbal, behavioral characteristics of the object as intermediate criteria for the effectiveness of interpersonal influence. It is advisable to use the criteria in the system, comparing their different intensity and frequency of manifestation.

The conditions of exposure include the place and time of communication, as well as the number of participants who are affected.

If communication is not factual, it necessarily has or at least presupposes some result - a change in the behavior and activities of people. Such communication acts as interpersonal interaction, that is, a set of connections and mutual influences of people that develop in the process of their joint activities.

Interpersonal interaction is a sequence of reactions of people deployed in time to each other's actions: the act of individual A., which changes B.'s behavior, evokes responses from his side, which in turn affect A.

In recent years, Russian psychologists, political scientists, sociologists, social philosophers have been actively exploring the problems of conflict. A whole scientific branch has emerged - conflictology, which has various types, forms and manifestations of socio-political and other types of conflicts as the subject of scientific analysis.

The study of conflicts is quite justified. In the twentieth century alone, over 300 million people died in the bloodiest conflicts - wars. In the past century, people have participated in more than 200 major military conflicts. Unfortunately, hostilities did not stop in the 21st century, becoming more acute and bloody, bringing death to ordinary people.

And how many conflicts with the most severe consequences occur in production, in everyday life.

Many of them end in tragedies.

Conflict is a state of relations between individuals, social groups about the imposition of a value system by inflicting damage on the other side or its destruction. In other words, the conflict arises over the competition between people for values.

When studying conflict, it is extremely important to know the structural components of this complex socio-psychological phenomenon.

Of course, the best way to avoid a conflict is not to enter into it, by all means to stop the escalation of the conflict to sit down at the negotiating table, present arguments and evidence of your own righteousness. The most effective way to avoid conflict is through compromise. The art of compromise, the skill of negotiation, needs to be learned.

At the same time, if a conflict cannot be avoided, it is extremely important to know certain rules of behavior in a given situation.

The conflict begins with a pre-conflict situation in the form of designating the differences between the conflicting parties, which is accompanied by an increase in social tension, emotional excitability, anxiety, etc. Various means are used - rumors, slander͵ intrigues, mutual accusations, demonstration of strength, creation of an enemy image, escalation of psychological tension, etc. Then comes the latent stage of the conflict͵ in which there are no external actions, but the negative energy of the participants in the conflict accumulates and occurs awareness of contradictions in the system of values and interests.

The open stage of the conflict is manifested through the active actions of the subjects, the beginning of which is the incident (pretext) leading to the open stage of the conflict.

An incident can be an accident, a provocation. Let us recall from history that the reason for the First World War was the murder in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Prince Franz Ferdinand.

If this event had not happened, something else would have been found. Collisions in those conditions of interstate relations could not be avoided.

The climax of the conflict is its escalation, which requires the mobilization of all material and human resources to defeat the enemy. An example would be total war. This is followed by the final stage of the conflict͵ when a significant part of the resources are exhausted and the hopelessness of further continuation of the conflict is realized.

The reasons are the superiority of one of the parties to the conflict͵ the intervention of a third party that can prevent the conflict (mediator).

The final stage of the conflict is the post-conflict period, when relations are normalized, the image of the enemy is gradually transformed into the image of a partner with a further transition to relations of cooperation.

We have described socio-political conflicts.

But according to the rules and laws, they practically do not differ from interpersonal conflicts in anything other than depth and scale.

Output: communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of intelligent, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychologically developed, cultured people, thanks to the wide opportunities for knowledge of the world around, a person acquires all of his higher cognitive abilities and qualities.

Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into an active, independent, creative person.

If from birth a person was deprived of the opportunity to communicate with people, he would never become a civilized, cultural and morally developed citizen, he would be doomed to remain a half-animal until the end of his life, only outwardly, anatomically and physiologically resembling a person. An example of this is children raised among animals.

Communication is the internal mechanism of joint activities of people, the basis of interpersonal relations.

The growing role of communication, the importance of studying it is associated with the fact that in modern society, much more often in direct, direct, open communication between people, collective decisions are developed, which were previously made, as a rule, by individuals.

Now it is fundamentally important to understand the place of these interpersonal relations in the real system of human life. In the socio-psychological literature, various points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relations are "located", primarily with respect to the system of social relations. Sometimes they are considered along with social relations, at the base of them, or, on the contrary, at the highest level [Kuzmin, 1967, p. 146], in other cases - as a reflection in the consciousness of social relations [Platonov, 1974, p. 30 ] etc. It seems to us (and this is confirmed by numerous studies) that the nature of interpersonal relations can be correctly understood if they are not put on a par with social relations, but seen in them special a series of relationships arising inside each type of social relations, not outside of them (be it “below”, “above”, “sideways” or anything else). Schematically, this can be represented as a cross-section of a special plane of the system of social relations: what is found in this “cross-section” of economic, social, political and other types of social relations is interpersonal relations (Fig. 2).

With this understanding, it becomes clear why interpersonal relations seem to "mediate" the impact on the personality of a broader social whole. Ultimately, interpersonal relations are conditioned by objective social relations, but it is in the end. Practically both series of relationships are given together, and underestimating the second row prevents a truly in-depth analysis of relationships and the first row.

The existence of interpersonal relations within various forms of social relations is, as it were, the implementation of impersonal relations in the activities of specific individuals, in the acts of their communication and interaction. At the same time, in the course of this realization, relations between people (including social ones) are reproduced again. In other words, this means that in the objective fabric of social relations there are moments emanating from the conscious will and special goals of individuals. It is here that they collide directly social and psychological. Therefore, for social psychology, the formulation of this problem is of paramount importance.

The proposed structure of relations has a major consequence. For each participant in interpersonal relationships, these relationships can be represented the only one the reality of any relationship whatsoever. Although in reality the content of interpersonal relations is ultimately one or another type of social relations, i.e. a certain social activity, but the content and even more so their essence remain largely hidden. Despite the fact that in the process of interpersonal, and therefore social relations, people exchange thoughts, are aware of their relationships, this awareness often does not go further than the knowledge that people have entered into interpersonal relationships.

Rice. 2. Interpersonal and social relations

Individual moments of social relations are presented to their participants only as their interpersonal relationships: someone is perceived as an "evil teacher", as a "cunning merchant", etc. At the level of everyday consciousness, without a special theoretical analysis, this is exactly the situation. Therefore, the motives of behavior are often explained by this, given on the surface, picture of relations, and not at all by the actual objective relations behind this picture. Everything is further complicated by the fact that interpersonal relations are the real reality of social relations: outside of them there are no “pure” social relations somewhere. Therefore, in almost all group actions, their participants appear as if in two qualities: as performers of an impersonal social role and as unique human personalities. This gives grounds to introduce the concept of "interpersonal role" as a fixation of a person's position not in the system of social relations, but in a system of only fupp connections, and not on the basis of his objective place in this system, but on the basis of individual psychological characteristics of the individual. Examples of such interpersonal roles are well known from everyday life: about individual people in the fuppe they say that he is a "shirt-guy", "his own in the board", "a scapegoat", etc. The discovery of personality traits in the style of performing a social role evokes responses in other members of the group, and thus a whole system of interpersonal relations arises in the group [Shibutani, 1991].

The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be viewed as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. In the Russian school of psychology, three types, or levels, of emotional manifestations of a personality are distinguished: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all types of these emotional manifestations.

However, in social psychology, it is the third component of this scheme that is usually characterized - the senses, and the term is not used in the strictest sense. Naturally, the "set" of these feelings is limitless. However, they can all be summarized in two large groups:

1) conjunctive- this includes all sorts of bringing people together, uniting their feelings. In each case of such an attitude, the other side acts as a desired object, in relation to which a readiness for cooperation, for joint actions, etc is demonstrated;

2) disjunctive- this includes feelings that separate people, when the other side appears as unacceptable, maybe even as a frustrating object, in relation to which there is no desire for cooperation, etc. The intensity of both kinds of feelings can be very different. The specific level of their development, naturally, cannot be indifferent to the activities of the groups.

At the same time, an analysis of only interpersonal relations cannot be considered sufficient to characterize the group: in practice, relations between people do not develop only on the basis of direct emotional contacts. Activity itself sets another series of relationships mediated by it. That is why it is an extremely important and difficult task of social psychology to analyze simultaneously two series of relationships in a group: both interpersonal and mediated by joint activity, i.e. ultimately the social relations behind them.

All this raises a very acute question of the methodological means of analysis. Traditional social psychology paid mainly attention to interpersonal relationships, therefore, in relation to their study, an arsenal of methodological tools was developed much earlier and more fully. The main of these means is the method widely known in social psychology. sociometry, proposed by the American researcher J. Moreno [Moreno, 1991], for whom it is an application to his special theoretical position. Although the failure of this concept has long been criticized, the methodology developed within this theoretical framework has proven to be very popular.

The essence of the technique is reduced to identifying the system of "sympathies" and "antipathies" between the members of the group, i.e., in other words, to identifying the system of emotional relations in the group by making each member of the group certain "choices" from the entire composition of the group according to a given criterion. All data about such "elections" are entered into a special table - a sociometric matrix or presented in the form of a special diagram - a sociogram, after which various kinds of "sociometric indices" are calculated, both individual and group. With the help of sociometric data, it is possible to calculate the position of each member of the group in the system of its interpersonal relations. Presentation of the details of the technique is not currently included in our task, especially since a large literature is devoted to this issue [Volkov, 1970; Kolominsky, 1979; Lectures on methodology, 1972]. The crux of the matter is that sociometry is widely used to record a kind of "photograph" of interpersonal relationships in a group, the level of development of positive or negative emotional relationships in it. In this capacity, sociometry certainly has a right to exist. The only problem is not to ascribe to sociometry and not to demand more from it than it can. In other words, the diagnosis of a group, given using the sociometric method, can in no way be considered complete: with the help of sociometry, only one side of group reality is captured, only the immediate layer of relations is revealed.

Returning to the proposed scheme - about the interaction of interpersonal and social relations, we can say that sociometry in no way grasps the connection that exists between the totality of interpersonal relations in a group and social relations in the system of which this group functions. For one side of the matter, the technique is suitable, but on the whole it turns out to be insufficient and limited for diagnosing the group (not to mention its other limitations, for example, the inability to establish the motives of the elections being made, etc.).