Massage from 1 month to 3 months. Reflex crawl exercise. Laying the baby out on the stomach

Age features of primary school children

The main pedagogical task is upbringing and personal development. Many teachers believed that in the process of education and training, a deep study of age characteristics and their consideration in a practical aspect plays a huge role. This issue was addressed, in particular, by L.A. Comenius, D.J. Locke, J.J. Rousseau, and later K.D. Ushinsky, L.N. Tolstoy and many others. In addition, some of them even developed a pedagogical theory, proceeding from the idea of ​​conformity of education and upbringing to nature, that is, taking into account the natural characteristics of age-related development. But they illuminated this plan in different ways. For example, Ya. A. Komensky put into this concept the idea of ​​taking into account in the process of education and upbringing the laws of child development inherent in human nature, or rather: the innate human desire for knowledge, for work, the ability for multilateral development. Russo, and then L.N. Tolstoy interpreted this issue differently: based on the fact that a child is by nature a perfect being, education and training should not violate this natural perfection, but should follow it, identifying and developing the best qualities of children. Nevertheless, they all agreed that it is necessary to carefully study the child, to know his age characteristics and to rely on them in the process of education and training.

Consider the age characteristics of primary school children.

Entering the first grade of a comprehensive school, a child ceases to be a preschooler and goes into the category of a junior student. Studying in primary school, the child belongs to the primary school age, i.e. primary school age is the years of life from 6 to 11 years old.

The very transition from preschooler to junior schoolchild is considered to be a crisis of seven years. It is at this point that many behavioral changes occur in children. The child becomes more difficult in educational terms, at this age he, as Vygotsky L.S. writes, “loses naivety and immediacy, in behavior, in relations with others, it becomes not so clear in all its manifestations as it was before”. It becomes very difficult to communicate with children of seven years of age. They become very capricious, constantly irritated, start to act pretentious, become not so sincere, in their behavior you can see a lot of pretense. Children begin to look like clowns, clown around a lot. Also, disobedience is often observed in the behavior of a child, children at this age want to do everything the other way around, not in the way that they are required to. They become deliberately stubborn, it is very difficult with them.

It is important to know that at the age of seven, children develop a special structure of experiences. When a child begins to understand what it means "I am satisfied", "I am upset", "I am angry", "I am cheerful", "I am good", "I am angry", he begins to deliberately orient himself in his feelings. In view of this, the characteristic features of the seven-year crisis stand out.

1. Experiences take on meaning (an embittered child realizes his anger). In view of this, the child begins to relate to himself in a new way.

2. During this period for the first time there is a generalization of experiences, or affective generalization, the logic of feelings. There are children who fail at every step. For example, when children who are developing normally play, a loser child wants to join them, but they refuse him, they mock him. At this moment, he has a short-term reaction about his own insufficiency, and after a minute he is again pleased with himself. Thousands of individual failures, but there is no general feeling of his own little value, he does not generalize what has happened many times already. The student has a generalization of feelings, i.e. if a situation has happened to him several times, he has an affective formation, the nature of which also refers to a single experience, or affect, as a concept refers to a single perception or memory. For example, a preschool child does not have real self-esteem, pride. The level of our requests for ourselves, for our success, for our position arises precisely in connection with the crisis of seven years.

Thus, the crisis of 7 years arises on the basis of the emergence of personal consciousness. The main symptoms of the crisis:

1) loss of immediacy. Between desire and action is the experience of what meaning this action will have for the child himself;

2) demeanor; the child builds something of himself, hides something (the soul is already closed);

3) a symptom of "bitter candy": the child feels bad, but he tries not to show it. Upbringing difficulties arise, the child begins to withdraw and becomes uncontrollable.

Generalization of experiences is the cornerstone of these symptoms. The child has a new inner life, a life of experiences, which is not directly and directly superimposed on the outer life. But this inner life is not indifferent to the outer one, it affects it.

The emergence of inner life is an extremely important fact, now the orientation of behavior will be carried out within this inner life. The crisis requires a transition to a new social situation, requires a new content of relations. The child must enter into a relationship with society as a totality of people who carry out obligatory, socially necessary and socially useful activities. In our conditions, the tendency towards it is expressed in the desire to go to school as soon as possible. Often the higher stage of development, which the child reaches by the age of seven, is confused with the problem of the child's readiness for schooling.

At the physiological level, the crisis of seven years is explained by the fact that the child begins to grow much faster, which indicates that a number of changes are taking place in his entire body. Vygotsky LS writes: “This age is called the age of replacement of teeth, the age of extension. Indeed, the child changes dramatically, and the changes are of a deeper, more complex nature than the changes that are observed during the crisis of three years. " At the age of 6-7 years in children, the maturation of the frontal part of the cerebral hemispheres is completed. This creates an opportunity for the implementation of purposeful voluntary behavior, action planning. By the age of seven, the mobility of nervous processes increases, but excitation processes prevail. This determines such characteristic features of children as restlessness, increased emotional excitability. The child is open to the influence of adverse factors. At the same time, the level of the child's neuropsychic response to various "hazards" changes. So, if for some reason a preschooler feels bad, then he may experience psychomotor agitation, tics, stuttering. Primary school age is characterized by an increase in general emotional excitability and impulsivity, symptoms and syndromes of fears, manifestations of aggression or negativism.

In addition, it is worth noting that during this period of life, the bone and muscular systems begin to develop intensively in children, which means that the teacher-choreographer should pay special attention to posture. Also, the bones of the hand and fingers continue to form in children, so it is difficult for them to be given small and precise movements with these parts of the body, their work is very tiring. It is equally important to know that great changes are taking place in the entire body of the child. Not only bone and muscle tissue begins to develop intensively, but also the central nervous system, autonomic and all internal organs. Such a restructuring in the body occurs due to the fact that the "new" endocrine glands are turned on and at the same time the "old" ones cease to function. Thus, an endocrine shift occurs, requiring a huge expenditure of strength and energy from the child's body to mobilize all reserves.

At the age of 6-11, there are peculiarities in the organization of the movement. It is much easier for children to perform sweeping, large movements, small equipment is given to them very hard. This is explained by the fact that muscle development and ways of controlling it do not occur simultaneously. Large muscles develop faster than small ones.

Despite the fact that physical endurance is growing in children, at the psychological level, they cannot concentrate on one thing for a long time, they still do not know how to concentrate, as a result of which interest quickly fades away, and they get tired very quickly. However, children at this age are very vulnerable. Younger school age is characterized by the fact that the teacher is an authority for the child (for example, in adolescence, this niche is occupied by peers). Therefore, the teacher must carefully weigh his words addressed to the child in order to avoid the emergence of complexes and resentments.

Also, children of 7-11 years old do not yet have a high working capacity. Therefore, the lesson should not be emotionally oversaturated, and the volume of the given material should be limited by the physical capabilities of the children.

When entering school, not every child develops the correct attitude towards learning. Learning is serious work that requires great willpower, organization and discipline. Not every younger student is able to understand why he needs it at all. In order for the child not to develop a negative attitude towards learning, he needs to make it clear that learning is not a game, but hard work, but very interesting, as a result of which the child learns a lot of new and cognitive. The child must understand that teaching is very important and necessary, that without it he will never become an interesting person, and his life will be boring. At first, children will develop an interest in the educational process itself without understanding its meaning, then interest in the results of educational activity and only then in its content, i.e. to the acquisition of knowledge. The teacher should support the child and praise his achievements to reinforce the students' interest in learning. Children should be satisfied with their own efforts. Thus, the ground will be created for the formation of motivation and, accordingly, for a responsible attitude of primary schoolchildren to learning.

The teacher should remember that in order to make the most of the students' opportunities, it is necessary to adapt them as soon as possible to work at school and at home, adapt and teach them to be attentive, to form perseverance. When they come to school, children, as a rule, have a fairly developed control over their emotions, feelings, desires, and work skills. They know how to communicate with people, are socialized.

This age is characterized by the beginning of intensive growth and qualitative transformation of cognitive processes. These processes acquire a conditional character and become conscious and voluntary. Children gradually master mental processes, learn to control memory and attention. They should be given special attention.

Let's consider these processes in sequence.

1. Memory at the age of 6-11 develops in two directions. The first is arbitrary memory. The educational material that finds a response in the area of ​​his interests, and is taught by the teacher in a playful way, and is also associated with bright visual aids, is easy to remember. In other words, involuntarily. In turn, the material that is not particularly interesting to them, is difficult to perceive, and is also new in form and content, unlike preschoolers, younger students are able to memorize voluntarily. Hence the second direction in the development of memory - meaningful. But it should be noted that learning is largely based on arbitrary, that is, meaningful memory. In turn, the teacher-choreographer must take this aspect into account, both for training semantic memory and for creating game moments in the lesson for rote memorization.

2. It cannot be said that the development of attention, on which the entire learning process is built, both in the general education sphere and in the field of additional education, which is choreographic art, is intensively developing precisely with the beginning of school life of students, that is, at primary school age. The child can already concentrate on one activity for 10 to 20 minutes. This must be taken into account when changing the forms of activity during the lesson, alternating serious activity with playful forms of learning in order to switch and retain attention.

The character of younger schoolchildren is characterized by impulsiveness - they can suddenly act under the influence of immediate desires and motives. Why it happens? First, the mental activity of a younger student is usually colored by emotions. Everything that children see, feel, what they think, what they do, evokes an emotionally colored attitude in them. Secondly, children 6-11 years old do not know how not only to hide, but also to restrain their feelings, it is difficult for them to control their visible manifestation, they are still spontaneous in expressing delight and joy. Thirdly, emotionality is expressed in a frequent change of mood, a tendency to inappropriate actions, short-term and violent manifestations of both positive manifestations, for example, joy, and negative ones - anger or fear. Over the years, a person acquires the ability to restrain, limit their unwanted manifestations, and therefore a teacher plays an important role in the formation of a successful personality.

It should also not be forgotten that primary school age is the age when the active formation of the personality takes place. It is for him that new relationships are characteristic. Moreover, both with teachers and with their classmates.

For students of this age, a new system of relations between people is formed and formed, in the student collective, the attitude towards responsibilities changes, thereby giving rise to character, will, increasing the range of interests, identifying and developing abilities.

At the same time, the aspect of moral behavior, moral norms and ethical rules is formed. We see the birth of personality.

List of sources used

1. Vygotsky L. S. Crisis of seven years // Sobr. cit .: 6 t. - M, 1984.

2. Vygotsky LS Psychology of child development, "Meaning", 2005.

3. Komensky Ya. A. Great didactics, Minsk, 2008.

Age features of primary school children

The initial period of school life is in the age range from 6-7 to 10-11 years (grades 1-4). At primary school age, children have significant developmental reserves. Their identification and effective use is one of the main tasks of developmental and educational psychology. When a child enters school, under the influence of learning, a restructuring of all his conscious processes begins, their acquisition of qualities inherent in adults, since children are included in new types of activities and a system of interpersonal relations. The general characteristics of all cognitive processes of the child are their arbitrariness, productivity and stability.

In order to skillfully use the child's reserves, it is necessary to adapt children to work at school and at home as soon as possible, to teach them to learn, to be attentive and diligent. Before entering school, the child must have sufficiently developed self-control, work skills and abilities, the ability to communicate with people, role behavior.

During this period, further physical and psychophysiological development of the child takes place, providing the opportunity for systematic education at school. First of all, the work of the brain and nervous system is being improved. According to physiologists, by the age of 7, the cerebral cortex is already largely mature. However, the most important, specifically human parts of the brain responsible for programming, regulation and control of complex forms of mental activity in children of this age have not yet completed their formation (the development of the frontal parts of the brain ends only by the age of 12), as a result of which the regulatory and inhibitory influence of the cortex on the subcortical structure is insufficient. The imperfection of the regulatory function of the cortex is manifested in the peculiarities of behavior, organization of activity and the emotional sphere characteristic of children of this age: younger students are easily distracted, unable to concentrate for a long time, excitable, emotional.

Younger school age is a period of intensive development and qualitative transformation of cognitive processes: they begin to acquire a mediated character and become conscious and voluntary. The child gradually masters his mental processes, learns to control perception, attention, memory.

When a child enters school, a new social developmental situation is established. The teacher becomes the center of the social situation of development. At the primary school age, educational activity becomes the leading one. Learning activity is a special form of student activity aimed at changing oneself as a subject of learning. Thinking becomes the dominant function in primary school age. The transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical thinking, which has emerged in preschool age, is coming to an end.

School education is structured in such a way that verbal-logical thinking is predominantly developed. If in the first two years of schooling, children work a lot with visual models, then in the next classes the volume of such classes is reduced. Figurative thinking is less and less necessary in educational activities.

At the end of primary school age (and later), individual differences appear: among children. Psychologists distinguish groups of "theorists" or "thinkers" who easily solve educational problems in terms of words, "practitioners" who need reliance on visualization and practical actions, and "artists" with vivid imaginative thinking. Most children have a relative balance between different types of thinking.

An important condition for the formation of theoretical thinking is the formation of scientific concepts. Theoretical thinking allows the student to solve problems, focusing not on external, visual signs and connections of objects, but on internal, essential properties and relationships.

At the beginning of primary school age, perception is not sufficiently differentiated. Because of this, the child "sometimes confuses letters and numbers that are similar in spelling (for example, 9 and 6 or the letters I and R). Although he can purposefully examine objects and drawings, they stand out, as in preschool age, the most striking, The "conspicuous" properties are mainly color, shape and size.

If preschoolers were characterized by analyzing perception, then by the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, synthesizing perception appears. Developing intelligence creates the ability to establish connections between the elements of the perceived. This is easily seen when children describe the picture. These features must be taken into account when communicating with the child and his development.

Age stages of perception:

2-5 years - the stage of listing the objects in the picture;

6-9 years old - description of the picture;

after 9 years - the interpretation of what he saw.

Memory in primary school age develops in two directions - arbitrariness and meaningfulness. Children involuntarily memorize educational material that arouses their interest, presented in a playful way, associated with vivid visual aids, etc. But, unlike preschoolers, they are able to purposefully, voluntarily memorize material that is not too interesting for them. Every year more and more teaching is based on arbitrary memory. Younger schoolchildren, just like preschoolers, usually have good mechanical memory. Many of them mechanically memorize educational texts throughout their primary school education, which most often leads to significant difficulties in secondary school, when the material becomes more complex and larger in volume, and solving educational problems requires not only the ability to reproduce the material. Improving semantic memory at this age will make it possible to master a fairly wide range of mnemonic techniques, i.e. rational methods of memorization (dividing the text into parts, drawing up a plan, etc.).

It is in the early school age that attention develops. Without the formation of this mental function, the learning process is impossible. In the lesson, the teacher draws the attention of students to the educational material, keeps it for a long time. The younger student can concentrate on one thing for 10-20 minutes. The volume of attention increases 2 times, its stability, switching and distribution increases.

Junior school age- the age of a fairly noticeable personality formation.

It is characterized by new relationships with adults and peers, inclusion in the whole system of collectives, inclusion in a new type of activity - teaching, which makes a number of serious requirements for the student.

All this decisively affects the formation and consolidation of a new system of attitudes towards people, the team, towards learning and related duties, forms character, will, expands the range of interests, develops abilities.

At the primary school age, the foundation of moral behavior is laid, moral norms and rules of behavior are assimilated, and the social orientation of the individual begins to form.

The character of younger students differs in some peculiarities. First of all, they are impulsive - they are inclined to act immediately under the influence of immediate impulses, motives, without thinking and without weighing all the circumstances, for random reasons. The reason is the need for active external discharge with age-related weakness of volitional regulation of behavior.

An age-related feature is also a general lack of will: the younger student does not yet have much experience of a long struggle for the intended goal, overcoming difficulties and obstacles. He can give up in case of failure, lose faith in his own strengths and impossibilities. Quite often capriciousness, stubbornness is observed. The usual reason for them is the lack of family education. The child was accustomed to the fact that all his desires and requirements were satisfied, he saw no refusal in anything. Capriciousness and stubbornness are a peculiar form of a child's protest against the firm demands that school makes on him, against the need to sacrifice what he wants in the name of what is needed.

Younger students are very emotional. Emotionality is reflected, firstly, in the fact that their mental activity is usually colored by emotions. Everything that children observe, what they think, what they do, evokes an emotionally colored attitude in them. Secondly, junior schoolchildren do not know how to restrain their feelings, control their external manifestation, they are very spontaneous and frank in expressing joy. Grief, sadness, fear, pleasure, or displeasure. Thirdly, emotionality is expressed in their great emotional instability, frequent mood changes, tendency to affect, short-term and violent manifestations of joy, grief, anger, fear. Over the years, the ability to regulate your feelings, to restrain their unwanted manifestations develops more and more.

The younger school age provides great opportunities for fostering collectivist relations. Over the course of several years, a junior schoolchild, with proper upbringing, accumulates experience of collective activity that is important for his further development - activity in a team and for a team. The education of collectivism is helped by the participation of children in public, collective affairs. It is here that the child acquires the main experience of collective social activity.

Literature:

Vardanyan A.U., Vardanyan G.A. The essence of educational activity in the formation of creative thinking of students // Formation of creative thinking of students in educational activities. Ufa, 1985.

Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

Gabai T.V. Educational activity and its means. M., 1988.

Galperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development of the child. M., 1985.

Davydov V.V. Problems of Developmental Learning: The Experience of Theoretical and Experimental Psychological Research. M., 1986.

Ilyasov I.I. The structure of the learning process. M., 1986.

Leontiev A.N. Lectures on general psychology. M., 2001.

Markova A.K., Matis T.A., Orlov A.B. Formation of motivation for learning. M., 1990.

Psychological features of personality formation in the pedagogical process / Ed. A. Kossakovski, I. Lompscher and others: Per. with him. M., 1981.

Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. SPb., 1999.

Elkonin D.B. The psychology of teaching a younger student. M., 1974.

Elkonin D.B. Developmental psychology: Textbook. manual for stud. higher. study. institutions. M., 2001.

"Younger school age is a period (7-11 years) when there is a process of further development of individual psychological and the formation of the basic social and moral qualities of an individual.

This stage is characterized by:

The dominant role of the family in meeting the material, communicative, emotional needs of the child;

The dominant role of the school in the formation and development of social and cognitive interests;

An increase in the child's ability to withstand the negative influences of the environment while maintaining the main protective functions of the family and school. "

Educational activity becomes the leading activity in primary school age. It determines the most important changes in the development of the psyche of children at a given age stage. Within the framework of educational activity, psychological neoplasms are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of primary schoolchildren and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage. Gradually, the motivation for learning activity, which was so strong in the first grade, begins to decline.

This is due to a drop in interest in learning and the fact that the child already has a conquered social position, he has nothing to achieve. In order for this not to happen, educational activities must be given a new personally significant motivation. The leading role of educational activity in the development of a child does not exclude the fact that the younger student is actively involved in other activities, during which his new achievements are improved and consolidated.

"According to LS Vygotsky, with the beginning of school education, thinking moves to the center of the child's conscious activity. The development of verbal-logical, reasoning thinking, which occurs in the course of assimilating scientific knowledge, also rearranges all other cognitive processes:" memory at this age becomes thinking, and perception is for the thinking. "

"Younger school age is characterized by educational activity as the leading one. The content of educational activity is the mastery of generalized methods of action in the system of scientific concepts. The predominant development of the cognitive sphere and intelligence. The primary school age ends with a crisis of 12 years, which acts as a crisis of restructuring relations with adults.

In a crisis period, a special form of self-awareness is born - the feeling of adulthood ("I want to be and seem to be an adult"). “Two features of self-awareness of younger adolescents can be distinguished. Firstly, it is a feeling, not reflection, experience, striving. Secondly, it is a social form of self-awareness. A teenager strives to see himself in a new role of an adult, discovers it for himself, requires self-recognition adults, respect, consideration of their opinion and equal rights. "

The social situation of development in the "child - adult" relationship breaks down into the "child - close adult" and "child - social adult" relationships. The teacher acts as a plenipotentiary representative of society, the bearer of social norms, rules, criteria for assessment and control. Peer relationships are also transformed into two systems of relationships - play and friendships and relationships with peers as partners in educational cooperation.

Psychological neoplasms of primary school age are formed in educational activities, therefore, their content and quality are determined by the content and characteristics of the organization of educational activity, the level of its formation in the younger schoolchild.

"The central line of development is intellectualization and, accordingly, the formation of mediation and arbitrariness of all mental processes. Perception is transformed into observation, memory is realized as voluntary memorization and reproduction based on mnemonic means and becomes semantic, speech becomes arbitrary, the construction of speech statements is carried out taking into account the goal and the conditions of verbal communication, attention becomes arbitrary. "

"This age is characterized by the further development of thinking. During this period, the transition from visual-figurative thinking to verbal-logical thinking is completed, and in the process of learning, the formation of scientific concepts begins in younger students, on the basis of which conceptual (or theoretical) thinking is built."

According to Aleinikova T.V. the development of memory in the period of primary school age (from 7 to 11 years old) proceeds along the line of arbitrariness and meaningfulness. With a high ability for involuntary emotional memorization in play (typical of preschool age), junior schoolchildren can already purposefully voluntarily memorize uninteresting, but necessary material, and this voluntary memory is getting better every year. During this period, semantic memory also develops, which completely coexists with mechanical memory, but allows one to master a wide range of mnemonic techniques that rationalize memorization.

At each age stage of development, there is a combination and level of formation of certain mental and perceptual actions characteristic of age. In numerous studies (Wenger L.A., Zaporozhets A.V., Minskaya, G.I. Poddyakov) it was shown that the most characteristic actions for this age are the actions of visual-figurative and the basis of logical thinking. The differences between them lie in the nature of the actions performed by the child with objects - substitutes of different types.

Actions of visual-figurative thinking can be characterized as actions to build and apply schematized images that reflect connections and relationships, real things. Schematized images allow, in a given situation, to highlight content that is significant for solving a problem. In this case, the child acts in accordance with the connections and relationships that exist between real objects. In the case of logical thinking, the child performs actions with signs according to fixed rules (mathematical operations, logical reasoning, etc.). The essence of these actions is to identify and correlate the essential parameters of the object in the context of the problem being solved.

According to this concept, the holistic process of mental development includes, along with the development of thinking, and the development of creative abilities.

Dyachenko O.M. refers to the actions of the imagination (keeping the chronological sequence of their formation in children) the following:

Objectification actions, when a child, on the basis of one detail, can create a holistic image of an object of reality;

Actions of "detailing", when they can fill the image created in the imagination with various details;

Actions of "inclusion", when the visible object becomes only a part of the image created by their imagination.

"The latter type of action is formed by the older preschool age. Thus, by school age, imagination acquires more and more importance for the development of mental abilities, which, chronologically developing, reaches almost its maximum development in early school age."

"During this period, movements are activated and improved, which leads (in conjunction with training) to the formation and development of psychophysiological functions. Piaget believes that in the period from 7 to 11 years, a child develops a conceptual system."

At primary school age - according to T.V. Aleinikova. - the development of conditioned reflex function occurs: the higher nervous activity is stabilized in connection with the morphological maturation of the frontal cortex and myelination (the process of formation of the myelin sheath covering the fast-acting pathways of the central nervous system) of the adjacent areas of the white matter, the neuropsychic functions of the child are improved - it seems possible verbal generalization of signs and events, associative reflexes are developed and extrapolation becomes available, as well as the development of a conditioned reflex with probabilistic reinforcement.

"At this age, the basic nervous processes in a child in their characteristics are close to those in an adult. So, in this age period, the induction relationship between excitation and inhibition is well expressed, and the ability of successive inhibition to rapid concentration is noted." "At the beginning of primary school age, perception still has features of preschool age: for example, it is not yet sufficiently differentiated, the child confuses similar letters and numbers, singles out objects in terms of size, shape and brightness more actively than in meaning. special education (analyzing perception), as in preschoolers, and by the end of this age period synthesizing perception is formed (also with appropriate training). "

"At primary school age, the analysis of tactile-kinesthetic signals improves, which contributes to the formation of complex coordinated movements. Cross-reciprocal coordination is observed in leg movements in the preschool period. For pushing with two legs). In arm movements, cross-reciprocal relationships appear later than simultaneous, symmetrical movements. From 8-9 years old there is an intensive increase in the speed of running and swimming, and by 10-11 years the frequency of running steps reaches its maximum values. 11-year-olds are superior to 12-14-year-olds in this respect. "

"Attention develops both in early and middle childhood - throughout the entire preschool age, but serious progress in this mental function is achieved in early school age; without sufficient formation of attention, learning is not possible. At this age, the ability to voluntarily concentrate attention on uninteresting things appears. , although still involuntary attention, and external impressions are a strong distracting factor, especially when focusing on complex material.During this period, attention is characterized by a small volume and low stability (up to 10-20 minutes, and in adolescents and high school students, respectively, up to 40-45 and 45-50 minutes). In addition, at primary school age, it is difficult to voluntarily switch attention and its adequate distribution. "

In the book "Human Physiology" Fomin N.A. claims that the development of memory proceeds along the line of arbitrariness and meaningfulness. With a high ability of involuntary emotional memorization in play, junior schoolchildren can already purposefully voluntarily memorize uninteresting but necessary material, and this voluntary memory is getting better every year. During this period, semantic memory also develops, more fully coexisting with mechanical memory, but allowing one to master a wide range of mnemonic techniques that rationalize memorization.

"Learning occurs more effectively in the case of high educational and cognitive motivation of the student and the presence of adequate internal control, which provides feedback during learning. During this period, the child develops theoretical thinking, he receives new knowledge, skills, skills, on the basis of which he forms a sense of competence. "

Senior school age is called early adolescence, it corresponds to the age of students in grades 9-11 (15-17 years old) of secondary school. In early adolescence, learning continues to be one of the main activities of high school students. Due to the fact that in the senior grades the circle of knowledge is expanding, students use this knowledge to explain many facts of reality, they are more consciously beginning to relate to the teaching. At this age, there are two types of students: some are characterized by the presence of evenly distributed interests, others are distinguished by a pronounced interest in one science. In the second group, some one-sidedness appears, but this is not accidental and is typical for many students.

The difference in attitude to teaching is determined by the nature of the motives. In the first place are the motives associated with the life plans of students, their intentions in the future, worldview and self-determination. In terms of their structure, the motives of senior schoolchildren are characterized by the presence of leading motives valuable to the individual. High school students point to such motives as the proximity of finishing school and the choice of life path, further education or work in their chosen profession, the need to show their abilities in connection with the development of intellectual powers. Increasingly, a senior student begins to be guided by a consciously set goal, there is a desire to deepen knowledge in a certain area, and a desire for self-education arises.

High school age is the period of completion of puberty and, at the same time, the initial stage of physical maturity. For a high school student, readiness for physical and mental stress is typical. Physical development favors the formation of skills and abilities in work and sports, opens up wide opportunities for choosing a profession. Along with this, physical development influences the development of some personality traits. For example, the awareness of their physical strength, health and attractiveness affects the formation of high self-esteem, self-confidence, cheerfulness in young men and women, on the contrary, the awareness of their physical weakness sometimes causes them to withdraw, self-doubt, pessimism.

Older students evaluate the educational process in terms of what it gives for their future. They start out looking at school differently than teenagers. If teenagers look into the future from the perspective of the present, then older students look at the present from the perspective of the future. "In early adolescence, the perception of reality acquires stable features that will persist in the future. Transformations appear in the perception of time - the time perspective is realized, and a conscious connection is established between the past and the future through the present. The perception and awareness of the time perspective allows us to make plans for the future."

In senior school age, a fairly strong connection is established between professional and academic interests. For older students, the choice of a profession contributes to the formation of educational interests, a change in attitudes towards educational activities. In connection with the need for self-determination, schoolchildren have a need to understand their surroundings and in themselves, to find the meaning of what is happening.

Characteristic of the educational process is the systematization of knowledge in various subjects, the establishment of interdisciplinary connections. All this creates the basis for mastering the general laws of nature and social life, which leads to the formation of a scientific worldview. The senior student in his educational work confidently uses various mental operations, reasoning logically, memorizing meaningfully. At the same time, the cognitive activity of high school students has its own characteristics. If a teenager wants to know what this or that phenomenon is, then the senior student seeks to understand different points of view on this issue, to form an opinion, to establish the truth. Older students get bored if there are no tasks for the mind. They love to explore and experiment, create and create new, original.

Senior schoolchildren are interested not only in theoretical questions, but in the very course of analysis, methods of proof. They like it when the teacher forces you to choose a solution between different points of view, requires substantiation of certain statements; they readily, even happily, enter into an argument and stubbornly defend their position.

Children of senior school age largely overcome the involuntary nature of adolescents, impulsiveness in the manifestation of feelings. A stable emotional attitude towards different aspects of life, towards comrades and towards adults is consolidated, favorite books, writers, composers, favorite melodies, paintings, sports, etc. appear, and at the same time antipathy towards some people, dislike for a certain type of activity etc.

At this age, friendship develops between boys and girls, which sometimes develops into love. Boys and girls strive to find the answer to the question: what is true friendship and true love. They argue a lot, prove the correctness of certain provisions, take an active part in evenings of questions and answers, in disputes.

At senior school age, aesthetic feelings, the ability to emotionally perceive and love beauty in the surrounding reality, in nature, in art, and social life, change noticeably. Developing aesthetic feelings soften the sharp manifestations of the personality of boys and girls, help to get rid of unattractive manners, vulgar habits, contribute to the development of sensitivity, responsiveness, gentleness, restraint.

"The social orientation of the student, the desire to benefit society, other people are increasing. This is evidenced by the changing needs of senior schoolchildren. 80 percent of junior schoolchildren are dominated by personal needs, and only in 20 percent of cases students express a desire to do something useful for other, close people (for family members, comrades.) In 52 percent of cases, adolescents would like to do something for others, but again to the people of their immediate environment. , state, society ".

Older students make very high demands on the moral character of a person. This is due to the fact that in senior school age, a more holistic idea of ​​oneself and the personality of others is created, the circle of perceived social and psychological qualities of people, and especially classmates, is expanding.

Demanding to the people around and strict self-esteem testify to the high level of self-awareness of the senior student, and this, in turn, leads the senior student to self-education. Unlike adolescents, high school students clearly show a new feature - self-criticism, which helps them to more strictly and objectively control their behavior.

"Early adolescence is a time of further strengthening of will, the development of such traits of volitional activity as purposefulness, perseverance, initiative. At this age, self-control and self-control are strengthened, control over movement and gestures is enhanced, due to which high school students and outwardly become more fit than adolescents ".

L.S. Vygotsky assigned a key role to self-awareness and its development at this age. But even calling self-consciousness “the last and highest of all restructuring,” he did not close the whole chain of new formations with this authority. ”“ With the formation of self-consciousness, ”notes L.S. Vygotsky, - a new character enters the drama of development, a new qualitatively unique factor - the personality of the adolescent himself. " , and the function of his “discovery” is reduced. “It is not for nothing that the external correlate of this event,” he writes, “is the emergence of a life plan ...”.

"In the second phase of the transitional age (13-15 years for girls and 15-17 years for boys), the most rapidly proceeding, there is mental imbalance, characterized by abrupt transitions from exaltation to depression and again to exaltation. At this age, negativism towards adults appears. and their attitudes, sensitivity increases, in girls - a tendency to tears. At the same time, the role of verbal signals increases and latent periods to verbal stimuli are shortened with a general increase in excitatory and weakening of inhibitory reactions. By the end of the transition period, when harmonious relations are established between the cortex and subcortical-stem structures, the body can be considered matured according to the manifestations of higher nervous activity. "

"By adolescence (and by adulthood), a certain balance is established in the excitatory-inhibitory relationship, determined by the typology of a person, that is, by neurochemical processes that determine cortical-subcortical interactions and provide a very individual character of the higher nervous activity of an individual." With age, orientation in space develops and the spatial accuracy of movements improves, especially during training. These coordination-motor parameters undergo significant changes, increasing from 4 to 10-11 years old, when the coordination indicators stabilize, followed by their increase at 12-13 years old and reaching adult characteristics by the age of 16 years.

At the same time, an important basis for coordination activity is stability in upright standing, which also increases with age, reaching the indicators of adults by the age of 14, which is largely due to the development of proprioceptive sensitivity, which provides signaling about the performance of movements (feedback); the ability to differentiate the tempo of movements and muscle tension is improved, as well as the ability to subtle changes in the tempo of movements, which is naturally associated with training and the growing accuracy of kinesthetic analysis. "

"During this period, young men, in comparison with adolescents, increase self-esteem and control over the expression of emotions, the mood becomes more stable and conscious, regardless of temperament. We can assume that by the age of 17 the emotional sphere reaches the stability of an adult, and its further state will already depend on a number of additional situational factors, naturally, in interaction with factors of the inner world of a person, in particular, with the features of his temperament that contribute to the development of neurosis or oppose it. "

"Senior school age is characterized by a general stabilization of the personality and, in connection with this, the stabilization of memory against the background of its continuing development. Normally, all memory processes (figurative, emotional, conditioned reflex, verbal-logical) - both memorization, storage, and reproduction - continue to improve up to 20-25 years old ".

"During this period, professional interests appear and manifest themselves, pushing into the background interests in interpersonal relationships in the family. Peer relationships are also giving way to relationships with significant adults, whose professional experience attracts the young man's interest.

Professional and personal self-determination is becoming the central neoplasm of early adolescence. "

Children grow, develop and change constantly. Quite recently, you ran after your child to the kindergarten, but now he is already 7 years old, it's time to go to school. And the parents have fear. How to behave correctly with younger students? How not to harm the child and make this period as comfortable as possible?

The most important thing is that your child has remained the same, he just has new interests and responsibilities. And to help him, you just need to know the age characteristics of younger students. Brief characteristics are described in the table below.

Junior school age is the period from 6-7 to 10 years old. Now the child is changing physiologically. Features of development in this period - muscles grow, the child wants activity and mobility. Particular attention should be paid to posture - it is formed precisely at the age of 6-7 years. Remember - a younger student can calmly sit at a table for ten minutes at most! Therefore, it is very important to competently organize his workplace, monitor the correct light in order to protect his eyesight.

Particular attention should be paid to the psychological and age characteristics of younger students. Attention at this age is not stable enough, limited in volume. They cannot sit still, a frequent change in the type of activity is required. The main way of obtaining information is still play - children remember perfectly what causes them emotions. Visibility and vivid, positive emotions allow younger students to easily memorize and assimilate the material. Use various tables, pictures, toys when working with your child at home. But everything needs a measure. Small physical education minutes allow you to release muscle tension, relax and switch from study to rest, thereby increasing the motivation for training. Right now, the child's attitude to learning is being formed - faith in oneself, the desire to learn and gain knowledge.

Younger schoolchildren are very active and proactive. But do not forget that at this age they are very easily influenced by the environment. Children recognize themselves as individuals, compare themselves with others, and begin to build relationships with peers and adults. The psychological trait of younger schoolchildren is pliability, gullibility. An important role for children at this age is played by authority. And here it is very important to control the environment in which the child is. Keep track of who your baby is communicating with. But the most important thing should still be the authority of the parents. Communicate with your child, express your point of view, listen to him. Mutual understanding is very important for junior schoolchildren, because right now his own position and self-esteem is beginning to form. And you must fully support and help him in this.

The period from 6-7 years old to 11-12 years old is usually called the primary school age, which is considered the pinnacle of childhood. A child retains many childish qualities - frivolity, naivety, a bottom-up look at an adult. At the same time, he is already beginning to lose his childish spontaneity in behavior, the nature of thinking is changing in the younger schoolchild.

This period is characterized by changes in both the physical and mental spheres of the child.

Growth and muscles of younger schoolchildren increase smoothly and slowly. Moreover, there is a relative equality in physical strength among boys and girls. The first milk teeth are lost, in the place of which permanent ones appear. Younger students are already able to perform controlled, purposeful movements. For this reason, they develop an interest in various sports and activities. Motor movement is making significant progress. Skills acquired in kindergarten play a role in the development of fine motor skills in children. Most writing skills are developed by the age of 6-7. During this period, perfect control of one's body develops, thanks to which it becomes possible to appreciate oneself at its true worth, to understand that "I can." Physical education plays a certain role in the physical and motor development of primary school children, provided that it is well organized.

The changes also concern the brain: the morphofunctional organization of the cortex is being improved, it regulates the functions of the subcortical brainstem formations; dominance and subordination are established in the system of interhemispheric relations, which is associated with the maturation of the corpus callosum. All this provides physiological conditions for the formation and functioning of one of the main neoplasms of this age - the ability to arbitrarily regulate mental processes, activities and behavior in general.

Globally, the leading line in the formation of the psyche is intellectual development. During this period, according to the theory of Jean Piaget, the child is at a stage corresponding to the level of specific operations. Thinking turns into logical thinking, moving more and more away from egocentrism and the predominance of intuition, acquires an abstract and generalized character. It becomes more complex, reversibility and flexibility appears. When characterizing a younger student, comparisons with the period preceding him - preschool childhood - cannot be avoided. Unlike preschoolers, children 6-7 years old have an idea of ​​the number, they understand that a change in one parameter can be compensated for by changes in another. They are also aware of the possibility of measuring the differences between similar objects.

The stage of concrete-operational thinking is achieved by children in the process of active exploration of the world around them, knowledge of the properties of objects and the accumulation of this experience.

Changes during this period also occur with memory. At school, children are faced with an incredibly difficult task: to master the system of scientific concepts in a fairly short period of time. Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character. Children can consciously set themselves the task of remembering certain information and this task is separated from any other. Moreover, they use a variety of memorization strategies, from basic repetition to structuring information and creating stories and visuals. Memory is especially important at primary school age, since the preservation of the information received is simply necessary for successful learning activities. Important indicators are the volume of memorized information, the speed of memorization, as well as the accuracy of memorization and storage time of information. It is clear that with an increase in the level of immediate memory, the strength of memorization of the material increases. Along with the direct, the other side of memory is mediated memorization. Its essence lies in the use of certain objects or signs that help to better remember the proposed material. This type of memory, in addition to performing the main function, is closely related to thinking, which allows not only to mechanically memorize material, but also to comprehend it logically and compare it with existing knowledge. The process of perception is now also subject to a specific task and consists in purposeful voluntary observation of an object. Learning activity is completely arbitrary in nature and therefore plays a role in the development of will. It becomes possible for the child to focus on uninteresting things.

Speaking skills are being improved. The vocabulary of junior schoolchildren continues to expand, they master more complex grammatical structures and more subtle word usage. This period is also accompanied by the active development of reading and writing skills. They involve the assimilation of phonetics, the ability to decode the alphabet, and the improvement of fine motor skills. At the same time, reading and writing are forms of symbolic communication and involve attention, perception and memory. It is easy to see how much this differs from the preschool period, when the main tasks of communication are to “speak” and “understand”. Parents, brothers and sisters, teachers, and peers are constant companions in the development of reading and writing.

In early school age, a radical restructuring of the child's relationship with reality takes place. And here again comparisons with preschool childhood cannot be avoided. Social relations of preschoolers are divided into two spheres, or situations of development: "child-adult" and "child-children". Both of these areas are related to play. The results of the game do not affect the child's relationship with the parents, nor does the relationship with other children determine the relationship with the parents. Social situations of development exist in parallel and are hierarchically linked. The well-being of the child during this period depends on intra-family harmony, emotionally warm relationships.

The system "child-adult" for a younger student is divided into two directions: "child-parents" and "child-teacher". Relationships with teachers are the first example of relationships with society. In the family, relationships are characterized by inequality; in school, everyone is equal. The teacher is the embodiment of the requirements of society, and the school system presupposes the presence of standards and measures for assessment. The school is characterized by a system of well-defined relationships that are based on the adoption of specific rules. This new direction in social interaction permeates the entire life of a child: it determines his relationship to parents and peers. All favorable conditions for life depend on him.

The new social situation of the "child-teacher" development requires a new type of activity - educational activity. It is not aimed at the result, as is commonly believed, but at identifying a way to assimilate it. All subjects of educational activity are abstract, theoretical.

“The school plays a decisive role in the development of children. This is where the child checks his intellectual, physical, social and emotional data and gets the opportunity to determine how he meets the standards set by parents, teachers and society at large. "

Learning activity is not given ready-made, it needs to be formed. This is the main task of elementary school - to teach a child to learn. This task is directly related to the formation of cognitive motivation. In the first weeks of schooling, this is not a problem. By the end of preschool childhood, the child develops a fairly strong motivation to study at school. Loss of interest in the game and the formation of educational motives are associated with the peculiarities of the development of game activity. Preschool children enjoy the process of playing, and at 5-6 years old - not only from the process, but also from the result, the win. In games according to the rules typical for senior preschool and primary school ages, the winner is the one who has mastered the game better. In game motivation, the emphasis is shifted from the process to the result; in addition, achievement motivation develops. The very course of development of children's play leads to the fact that play motivation is gradually giving way to educational motivation. This new personal education is defined by Lydia Ilinichna Bozhovich as "the inner position of a schoolchild." It combines the child's needs to attend school (to do something new, carry a portfolio, notebooks), to engage in a new learning activity for him, to take a new position among those around him. However, there is a discrepancy between the motive and the content of educational activity, which is why it gradually loses its strength. D.B. Elkonin argued that the content that is taught to him in school should encourage the child to learn.

The general dynamics of the motives of children of primary school age is as follows: at first, schoolchildren have a predominant interest in the external aspect of being at school (sitting at a desk, wearing a uniform, a briefcase, etc.), then interest arises in the first results of educational work (to the first written letters and figures, to the first marks of the teacher) and only after that to the process, the content of the teaching, and even later - to the methods of obtaining knowledge. However, the decline in motivation towards the end of primary school is normal and understandable. Staying in school in itself loses its immediate emotional attraction for the child, since this need has already been satisfied. And now the content of education and methods of obtaining knowledge are coming to the fore. The most effective for the formation of cognitive motivation are developmental classes and a problematic approach. So, V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, within the framework of the theory of developmental learning, emphasized that learning should not be based on an ascent from everyday concepts to scientific ones. On the contrary, taking into account the active development of logical thinking, teaching should be based on generalization, on scientific concepts, which are further specified. Traditional training is less conducive to the development of motivation. Most often, the leading becomes an interest not in the process, but in the result of learning - a mark, praise or material reward. The traditional education system also creates some difficulties for the development of creativity - the ability to find new, non-traditional ways of solving various problems. This skill is of great importance for the level of the performed activity, for the way of communicating with other people, for realizing one's own qualities, one's advantages and disadvantages. “Creativity in primary school age forms the ability to freely and productively use the knowledge gained, helps to learn not ready-made concepts, but methods of solving various problems, forms an attitude toward potential knowledge, toward learning to“ learn ”rather than using ready-made knowledge. In a complex and rapidly changing world, such abilities are extremely important, they help not only to adapt in a wide variety of situations, but also to self-actualize in them. "

Learning activity is unique, since during the assimilation of knowledge, the child does not change anything in this knowledge. For the first time, the subject itself, which carries out this activity, becomes the subject of change. The child turns to himself, his own changes, the emergence of reflection. This is the reason for including assessment in any learning activity. However, the assessment should by no means be purely formal. By meaningfully assessing educational activity, its results and process, the teacher sets certain benchmarks - assessment criteria that must be mastered by children. It is through the assessment that oneself is singled out as a special subject of changes in educational activity.

The structure of educational activities includes 4 components:

1. Learning task - something that the student must learn in the process;

2. Learning action - the student's vigorous activity, changes in the educational material until the discovery of the properties of the studied subject;

3. Control action - an indication of whether the student is performing the action correctly;

4. Assessment action - comparison with a task, determining whether the student has achieved a result or not.

The construction and implementation of educational activities has specific features. To characterize them, one can return to the previous periods of development and assume that at first everything is in the hands of the teacher, and he acts with the hands of the student. However, the subject of educational activity is ideal objects, which makes interaction difficult. It is no coincidence that when children make mistakes in already formed actions, they can find and correct them without difficulty, but with one condition - the motivation of an adult. Despite the transfer by the teacher of the entire operational composition of actions to the students, he alone continues to be the bearer of meanings and goals. As long as the teacher is the center of the learning situation, who exercises control, the learning actions are not completely internalized by the students.

How can you avoid this? Within the framework of Russian psychology, extensive research has been carried out on the role of cooperation with peers in the mental development of primary schoolchildren. In particular, G.A. Zuckerman, experimentally found that children, acting in the form of joint work in the classroom, more successfully form reflexive actions, compared with students in the traditional way. Cooperative learning removes the contradictions between the appearance of collaborative learning and the real, individual focus of traditional learning. These findings allow some parallels to be drawn with Jean Piaget's position on the child-child relationship. In his opinion, only when children communicate with each other can such fundamental qualities as criticality, tolerance and the ability to take the point of view of another be formed. Gradually, genuine logic and morality replace egocentrism.

Also G.A. Zuckerman emphasized the qualitative differences between cooperation with peers and cooperation with adults. There is always a division of functions between an adult and a child: the first sets goals, controls and evaluates the actions of the second. However, even with joint activity and subsequent internalization of actions, some components continue to remain with the adult. Cooperation with peers affects the process of interiorization in a completely different way. It is a mediating link between the beginning of the formation of a new action when working with an adult and a completely independent end of the formation. In cooperation with peers, communication is equal in nature, there are control and evaluative actions and statements. In cases when an adult only organizes, “launches” the work, and children act independently, it is better to take into account the partner's position, his point of view. Reflexive actions develop. Another important feature of such joint activity is that children pay attention not only and not so much to the result, but also to the mode of action, both of theirs and their partner, and their coordination takes place. This can be best observed in weak students - when they work together, they become active and interested. On the other hand, cooperation with peers was studied by V.V. Rubtsov also established that this type of joint activity is the basis of the origin of the child's intellectual structures.

Learning activity, as already noted, is the leading one in primary school age. All other activities, including play, are subject to her. It would be wrong to assume that the game completely disappears from the world of the elementary school student. It persists, but undergoes significant changes. As they grow older, the enjoyment of the game is replaced by the pleasure of achieving a predetermined result. At school age, the game is hidden, moves into the field of imagination. It allows you to make the meaning of things more explicit for the child, brings it closer.

The younger school age is also characterized by a certain dynamics in the development of the motivational-need sphere. The development of thinking, the ability to understand the world around us is gradually transferred to oneself. Comparison of one's own success and grades with the achievements of classmates plays a role in differentiating and improving the adequacy of the child's self-esteem. School, teachers and classmates play a dominant role in the self-identification of a younger student. The positive development of his personality depends on how successfully the child begins to learn, how he develops relationships with teachers and how his academic success is assessed. Low academic performance and conflicts with the teacher during this period can lead not only to deviations in the cognitive plan, but also the appearance of other negative symptoms, for example, anxiety, aggression, inadequacy.

What neoplasms of primary school age can be distinguished on the basis of what has been said?

First, the arbitrariness and awareness of mental processes and their intellectualization. Thanks to the assimilation of the system of scientific concepts, their internal mediation also occurs. However, all this still does not apply to the intellect, which does not yet “know itself”.

Secondly, active awareness of one's own changes as a result of the development of educational activity, that is, the formation of reflection.

Thirdly, the formation of an adequate and stable self-esteem, the source of which is the comparison of one's own successes and grades with the achievements of classmates in the framework of educational activities.

So, primary school age is the flowering of childhood and, at the same time, the beginning of a new, school life. Entering it, the child acquires the inner position of the student, educational motivation. All mental processes are mediated by the development of intelligence. Educational activity becomes the leading one for the younger schoolchild. The teacher embodies the requirements and expectations of society for him. Personal communication at this age depends on school success, teacher attitude and grades. On the other hand, it makes self-esteem more adequate and helps the socialization of children in new conditions, as well as stimulates their learning. In the studies carried out, it was experimentally established that the situation of equal communication gives the child the experience of control and evaluative actions and statements. Taking into account the partner's position, his point of view is better ensured, egocentrism is overcome. Reflexive actions develop.