Regulations 

General analysis of urine in a cat decoding. Clinical analysis of urine in cats and dogs

Clinical analysis of urine quite fully reflects the metabolic processes occurring in the body of the animal, and allows you to identify many diseases. So, in a laboratory study, a protein (protein) can be detected in the urine of a cat. Normally, urine should not contain healthy animal protein. Its presence is allowed in an amount of not more than 0.3 g / l.

And although the appearance of protein compounds in the urine of a cat is sometimes caused by physiological reasons that are not dangerous, in most cases this indicates a pathology of the reproductive, urinary or circulatory system of the animal.

If the level of protein in the urine even reaches the upper limit of the norm, we are not talking about the disease yet. Pathology is considered to be the presence of it in an amount much exceeding the permissible value, this condition is called proteinuria.

Protein in urine can be one of the symptoms of these diseases:

  • cystitis;
  • urethritis;
  • pyelonephritis;
  • glomerulonephritis;
  • renal amyloidosis (violation of protein-carbohydrate metabolism);
  • urolithiasis disease;
  • anemia;
  • infectious diseases (ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease);
  • high blood pressure;
  • pyometra (one of the dangerous forms of endometritis);
  • lipemia (the presence of lipids in the blood);
  • systemic lupus erythematosus;
  • diabetes;
  • oncological diseases of the genitourinary system.

Types of proteinuria

Proteinuria is functional (physiological) and pathological. The first one is harmless, it is a temporary reaction to sudden physical exertion, overheating, hypothermia or food with a high protein content. The indicator usually returns to normal when the provoking effect on the body stops, for example, when the cat's diet changes.

The pathological form develops against the background of a disease and is subdivided into:

  • Prerenal, when small protein molecules enter the kidneys from the blood, penetrating through the filtration barrier.
  • Postrenal - protein fractions are formed in the urinary tract as a result of inflammation. Most often, this form develops with a bacterial infection.
  • Renal, which is caused by functional or anatomical disorders of the kidneys. In this case, the appearance of protein in urine is the result of inflammation or damage to the parenchymal tissue.

Symptoms

In some cases, the protein in the urine of a cat is detected by chance, no other signs of malaise are observed. This is possible with functional proteinuria, or in the initial period of the pathological form of the disease. With the further development of the disease, symptoms inherent in many pathologies can be detected, therefore, based on anamnesis alone, it is unrealistic to make a diagnosis.

It is possible to assume that a cat has proteinuria if the animal:

  • lost appetite;
  • it loses weight quickly;
  • weakness, apathy is observed;
  • vomiting often occurs;
  • the urine is cloudy, and fragments of blood can be found in it.

Important! If a cat has at least some of these symptoms, this is a reason to urgently go to a veterinary clinic in order to find the cause of the disease as soon as possible. Proteinuria is one of the pathologies, the success in the treatment of which largely depends on the accurate identification of the provoking disease and the timely initiation of therapy.

Diagnostics

The list of diagnostic tests is determined by the veterinarian. The initial diagnostic method is a general urinalysis. A rapid test for the presence of protein in urine, which is carried out with a paper pH strip, does not always give a reliable result, and does not provide quantitative data.

If proteinuria is suspected, the cat is prescribed bacteriological and chemical urine tests. The following indicators are determined:

  • Colour;
  • transparency;
  • density;
  • acidity (pH);
  • the nature of the sediment;
  • protein;
  • slime;
  • epithelium;
  • fat and ketone bodies;
  • the presence of blood elements;
  • "Liver" pigment bilirubin;
  • glucose.

Attention! In order for the results of the analysis of urine for protein not to be false, it is not recommended to feed the animal with food containing a lot of proteins at least a day before it is taken. These are poultry, liver, cottage cheese, milk, eggs.

Differential diagnosis of proteinuria may also include general and biochemical blood tests, ultrasound, X-ray and other studies.

Treatment

Proteinuria is most often treated on an outpatient basis. Therapy directly depends on the disease that caused the appearance of proteins in the urine.

The most common cause of protein in the urine is kidney disease. If this is a functional disease, ACE inhibitors can be prescribed to the cat to eliminate renal failure: Benazepril, Imidapril, Lisinopril, Ramipril. Preparations containing fatty acids ALA, EPA and DHA (omega-3 group) help to improve the condition of the kidney vessels. These unsaturated acids are taken for a long time, and it is recommended to give them to elderly animals constantly.

For inflammatory processes in the kidneys or urinary tract (pyelonephritis, cystitis, urethritis), antibiotics of the penicillin or cephalosporin group are prescribed (Penicillin, Carbenicillin, Amoxicillin, Cefepim, Cefotaxime), as well as sulfonamides (Sulfin, Sulfadimethoximethoxy). Antibiotic therapy with tetracycline drugs is used if the cat has ehrlichiosis, an acute infectious disease carried by ticks.

If the cat is found to be suffering from hypertension, he is prescribed a course of treatment with antihypertensive drugs (Losartan or Telmisartan) and / or potassium-sparing diuretics (for example, Spironolactone). As an additional means of treatment and prevention, a diet with limited fat and salt is used.

In case of anemia not associated with blood loss (hemolytic, hypoplastic or alimentary), the animal is prescribed drugs that increase hemoglobin. These are preparations of iron, copper, cobalt, as well as vitamins of group B. Often, alimentary anemia with a decrease in the level of red blood cells and hemoglobin in the blood is observed in young cats and kittens due to improperly organized nutrition or a violation of the absorption of iron by the body. In such cases, your veterinarian will recommend adding a product such as animal liver to your cat's diet.

The intensity of manifestations of proteinuria, even if it is caused by a severe pathology, can be effectively reduced by limiting protein-rich foods in the cat's menu and increasing the amount of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in it. The state of the animal's immune system is also important. To increase its resistance to a cat who has had proteinuria, it is recommended to take a course of immunomodulators, veterinarians usually prescribe Gamapren, Gamavit, Vetosal or Immunovet.

How to collect cat urine for analysis: video

A veterinarian, no matter how professional he is, does not have X-ray vision and extrasensory abilities, therefore, in order to diagnose a particular disease, he needs to have the results of laboratory tests on hand. One of these helpers will be a general analysis of cat urine - a simple method that allows you to assess not only the state of the urinary system, but also the body as a whole.


Routine examination includes assessment of physical properties, chemical composition and microscopy of the sediment.

Physical properties

This includes color, quantity, clarity, and specific gravity.

The amount of urine excreted in cats per day is determined in a hospital setting. The owner of the animal can only subjectively judge this indicator, unless the pet goes into the tray without filler, when it is possible to measure the volume by pouring the contents into a measuring cup. A healthy animal "drains" such an amount of liquid, which is approximately equal to its volume.

  • Increased urination is observed in diabetes, inflammatory processes, chronic.
  • Reduced urine output is characteristic of shock, acute renal failure.

Chromaticity from light yellow to yellow. The color depends a lot on the type of food and the amount of water you drink during the day. With increased urine output, the liquid is very light, with rare - dark.

The color is influenced by the intake of medicines, as well as pathological conditions:

  • with hematuria, urine will be reddish due to mixing of blood;
  • with increased release of bilirubin - very dark, reminiscent of beer;
  • with hemoglobinuria, black staining is observed;
  • the presence of leukocytes will give a milky coloration.

An experienced physician may suspect congestion, burns, vomiting, or diarrhea from dark urine. Too pale urine indicates diabetes mellitus.

Transparency... Normally, a normal medium-sized typographic font can be easily read through liquid.

Turbidity appears when excreted in urine:

  • microbes - indicates the presence of inflammation in the kidneys;
  • salts during development;
  • leukocytes - the indicator speaks of some kind of inflammation in the kidneys themselves, in the bladder or in the ureters.

Urine reaction in cats, like in carnivorous animals, it should be slightly acidic (less than 7, but not more than 6). The type of nutrition plays a significant role in the pH value:

  • with pure meat, it will be sour;
  • with a vegetarian (if at all possible) - alkaline.

A prolonged shift in one direction or another leads to urolithiasis due to the formation of uric acid or phosphate stones.

Important! It is better to check the reaction before going to the laboratory using a litmus strip (available at the pharmacy). The fact is that with prolonged standing, urine alkalizes and the indicator can be regarded incorrectly.

  • Acidic urine is characteristic of diabetic coma, renal failure, nephritis, and kidney stagnation.
  • An alkaline reaction occurs with an increased excretion of protein, leukocytes, bacteria in the urine, when urea is decomposed to ammonia.

Density or specific gravity needs to be determined to assess the ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine. The norm for cats is 1.020-1.035.

  • A low rate occurs with diabetes insipidus.
  • High density occurs with dehydration and acute glomerulonephritis.
  • Sharp fluctuations from side to side indicate renal failure.


Chemistry of urine

Protein... Normally, it should not be, although a value of up to 0.3 g per liter is allowed. The appearance of protein in the urine indicates the presence of a disease-causing process, but which one is determined by additional research. So, protein can appear in biological fluid:

  • with infection;
  • anemia;
  • pyelonephritis;
  • urolithiasis;
  • cystitis, urethritis;

Glucose Is another indicator that is not detected in the urine of healthy animals. Most often, the appearance of this carbohydrate indicates diabetes mellitus. But it can also be released during stress or acute renal failure.

Physiological glucosuria occurs when excessive intake of carbohydrates into the body, against the background of the administration of drugs (steroids, cardiac glycosides, adrenaline).

Ketone (acetone) bodies... Finding them in urine indicates ketonuria or acetonuria. Normally, this phenomenon should not be observed. The presence of ketone bodies indicates:

  • about diabetes mellitus with simultaneous detection of glucose;
  • if there is no glucose, then most likely the reason for the release of acetone in the urine was starvation, prolonged eating with fatty foods, diarrhea or vomiting, poisoning;
  • about a fever.

Bilirubin- bile pigment. Finding it in urine says:

  • about liver problems;
  • violation of the outflow of bile due to blockage of the bile ducts;
  • the development of hemolytic jaundice.

Nitrite Analysis cannot be called mandatory. Usually this indicator is assessed when a bacterial infection is suspected. The fact is that microbes are able to convert nitrates, which are always in urine, to nitrites.

Blood and hemoglobin in urine- a wake-up call for a serious pathology. Pure blood is found:

  • with trauma to the ureters or bladder during the passage of kidney stones;
  • jade;
  • tumors in the organs of the urinary system.

Coffee staining indicates an admixture of hemoglobin, which happens in case of poisoning, burns, and some infections.

Sediment microscopy

A urine sediment test will be most useful in bladder puncture specimens. True, such manipulations are rarely resorted to when urgently needed. Sediment microscopy includes the detection of epithelial cells, erythrocytes, leukocytes, urinary casts. Using this method, it is possible to determine the affected area of ​​the urinary system.

Epithelium in the sediment it can be flat, transitional, renal. The last two types are of interest to the clinician:

  • the presence of a transient is observed with cystitis, urethritis, malignant tumor of the bladder;
  • renal epithelium is found in nephritis, poisoning, fever, infections, renal failure.

Erythrocytes in the sediment should not be normal.

Leukocytes talk about inflammation in the kidneys, urethra and infectious processes. The type of leukocytes and the consistency of the sediment helps to determine the diagnosis:

  • with cystitis, the urine is cloudy, the reaction is usually alkaline, the sediment is viscous and viscous, consists of neutrophils;
  • with nephritis, the biological fluid is acidic, the sediment is loose, consists of leukocyte cylinders;
  • with glomerulonephritis, there are more lymphocytes in the sediment.

Urinary cylinders- formations consisting of protein, cells and salts. Normally, there may be a single amount of them. By structure there are:

  • hyaline - found in kidney disease, poisoning, elevated body temperature;
  • granular - formed during nephrosis and intoxication;
  • wax - an indicator of a severe course of the disease.

Microbes- they shouldn't be. Appear in urine as a result of pollution from the genital tract, passing through the lower part of the urethra, or in pathology:

  • pyelonephritis;
  • urolithiasis disease;
  • frequent catheterization;
  • diabetes.

Salt crystals... The presence of salts in the urine does not always indicate a disease. So, they can appear during the withdrawal of drugs from the body, temperature or prolonged standing of the biological fluid before it was subjected to research. Therefore, when diagnosing a high salt content, these factors must be taken into account so as not to draw a false conclusion.

The following urinary salts are of diagnostic value:

  • ammonium crystals are found in cystitis only with an alkaline reaction;
  • oxalates are found in diabetes and severe infections or the formation of oxalate kidney stones;
  • phosphates appear when alkalizing during vomiting or frequent gastric lavage;
  • uric acid is a sign of stone formation, but it can also indicate pneumonia, lead poisoning, circulatory disorders, uric acid diathesis;
  • the amount of urates increases with the intake of salicylates, phenylbutazone, chronic kidney failure;
  • struvites are a sign of bladder disease, although they may appear in stagnant urine;
  • calcium phosphate indicates arthritis, rheumatism, anemia.

Slime Is another pathological indicator that is not found in the urine of healthy cats. The appearance of a mucous sediment indicates urethritis, prostatitis, cystitis, kidney stones, pyelitis (inflammation of the renal pelvis).

KotoDigest

Thank you for subscribing, check your inbox: you should receive an email asking you to confirm your subscription

A general urinalysis includes an assessment physicochemical characteristics of urine and sediment microscopy. This study allows you to assess the function of the kidneys and other internal organs, as well as identify the inflammatory process in the urinary tract. Together with a general clinical blood test, the results of this study can tell a lot about the processes occurring in the body and, most importantly, indicate the direction of further diagnostic search.

Indications for the purpose of the analysis:

Secondary ketonuria:
- thyrotoxicosis;
- Itsenko-Cushing's disease; overproduction of corticosteroids (tumor of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland or adrenal glands);

Hemoglobin.

Norm: dogs, cats - absent.

Hemoglobinuria is characterized by red or dark brown (black) urine, dysuria. Hemoglobinuria must be distinguished from hematuria, alkaptonuria, melaninuria, porphyria. With hemoglobinuria, erythrocytes in the urine sediment are absent, anemia with reticulocytosis and an increase in the level of indirect bilirubin in the blood serum are detected.

When does hemoglobin or myoglobin appear in urine (hemoglobinuria)?

Hemolytic anemia.
- Severe poisoning (sulfonamides, phenol, aniline dyes,
- After an epileptic seizure.
- Transfusion of an incompatible blood group.
-
- Sepsis.
- Severe injuries.

Microscopy of urinary sediment.

In the urinary sediment, an organized sediment is distinguished (cellular elements, cylinders, mucus, bacteria, yeasts) and unorganized (crystalline elements).
Red blood cells.

Norm: dogs, cats - 1 - 3 erythrocytes in the field of view.
All that is higher is hematuria.

Allocate:
- gross hematuria (when the color of urine is changed);
- microhematuria (when the color of urine is not changed, and red blood cells are detected only under a microscope).

In the urinary sediment, erythrocytes can be unchanged and altered. The appearance of altered erythrocytes in the urine is of great diagnostic value, because they are most often renal in origin. Unchanged erythrocytes are more common in urinary tract lesions (urolithiasis, cystitis, urethritis).

When does the red blood cell count increase (hematuria)?

Urolithiasis disease.
- Tumors of the genitourinary system.
- Glomerulonephritis.
- Pyelonephritis.
- Infectious diseases of the urinary tract (cystitis, tuberculosis).
- Kidney injury.
- Poisoning with derivatives of benzene, aniline, snake venom, anticoagulants, poisonous mushrooms.

Leukocytes.

Norm: dogs, cats - 0-6 leukocytes in the field of view.

When does the white blood cell count rise (leukocyturia)?

Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis.
- Cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis.
- Stones in the ureter.
- Tubulointerstitial nephritis.

Epithelial cells.

Norm: dogs and cats - sporadic or absent.

Epithelial cells are of various origins:
- cells of squamous epithelium (washed off with night urine from the external genital organs);
- cells of the transitional epithelium (lining the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, pelvis, large ducts of the prostate gland);
- cells of the renal (tubular) epithelium (lining the renal tubules).

When does the number of epithelial cells increase?

Cell enhancement squamous epithelium has no significant diagnostic value. It can be assumed that the patient is not properly prepared for the collection of analysis.

Cell enhancement transitional epithelium:
- intoxication;
- intolerance to anesthesia, drugs, after surgery;
- jaundice of various etiologies;
- urolithiasis (at the time of the passage of the stone);
- chronic cystitis;

Appearance of cells renal epithelium:
- pyelonephritis;
- intoxication (taking salicylates, cortisone, phenacetin, bismuth preparations, poisoning with heavy metal salts, ethylene glycol);
- tubular necrosis;

Cylinders.

Norm: dogs and cats are absent.

The appearance of cylinders (cylindruria) is a symptom of kidney damage.

When and which cylinders appear in the general urine analysis (cylindruria)?

Hyaline casts are found in all organic kidney diseases, their number depends on the severity of the condition and the level of proteinuria.

Granular cylinders:
- glomerulonephritis;
- pyelonephritis;
- kidney cancer;
- diabetic nephropathy;
- infectious hepatitis;
- osteomyelitis.

Waxy cylinders indicate severe kidney damage.

Leukocyte casts:
- acute pyelonephritis;
- exacerbation of chronic pyelonephritis;
- kidney abscess.

Erythrocyte casts:
- kidney infarction;
- embolism;
- acute diffuse glomerulonephritis.

Pigment cylinders:
- prerenal hematuria;
- hemoglobinuria;
- myoglobinuria.

Epithelial casts:
- acute renal failure;
- tubular necrosis;
- acute and chronic glomerulonephritis.

Fat cylinders:
- chronic glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis complicated by nephrotic syndrome;
- lipoid and lipoid-amyloid nephrosis;
- diabetic nephropathy.

Bacteria.

Fine the urine in the bladder is sterile. The detection of bacteria in the analysis of urine more than 50,000 in 1 ml indicates an infectious lesion of the urinary system (pyelonephritis, urethritis, cystitis, etc.). It is possible to determine the type of bacteria only with the help of bacteriological research.

Yeast fungi.

Detection of yeast of the genus Candida indicates candidiasis, which occurs most often as a result of inappropriate antibiotic therapy, taking immunosuppressants, cytostatics.

Determination of the type of fungus is possible only with bacteriological research.

Slime.

Mucus is secreted by the epithelium of the mucous membranes. Normally absent or present in urine in insignificant amounts. With inflammatory processes in the lower urinary tract, the content of mucus in the urine increases.

Crystals (unorganized sediment).

Urine is a solution of various salts that can precipitate (form crystals) when urine stands. The presence of certain crystals of salts in the urinary sediment indicates a change in the reaction to the acidic or alkaline side. Excessive salt content in urine contributes to the formation of stones and the development of urolithiasis.

When and what crystals appear in the general urine analysis?
- Uric acid and its salts (urates): normally can be found in Dalmatians and English Bulldogs, in dogs of other breeds and cats they are associated with liver failure and porosystemic anastomoses.
- Triple phosphates, amorphous phosphates: often found in slightly acidic or alkaline urine in healthy dogs and cats; may be associated with cystitis.

Calcium oxalate:

Severe infectious diseases;
- pyelonephritis;
- diabetes;
- poisoning with ethylene glycol;

Cystine:

Cirrhosis of the liver;
- viral hepatitis;
- the state of the hepatic coma
- Bilirubin: May be present in healthy dogs with concentrated urine or due to bilirubinuria.

    General clinical examination of urine includes the determination of physical properties, chemical composition and microscopic examination of the sediment.

    Physical properties.

    NUMBER.

    Fine the average daily amount of urine is 20-50 ml per kg of body weight for dogs and 20-30 mg per kg of body weight for cats.

    Increased daily urine output - polyuria.
    Causes:
    1. Convergence of edema;
    2. Diabetes maleus (together with positive urinary glucose and high urine specific gravity);
    3. Glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, pyelonephritis (together with negative glucose levels, high urine specific gravity and severe proteinuria);
    4. Cushing's syndrome, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, tumors, uterine disease (pyometra), hyperthyroidism, liver disease (together with negative glucose levels, high urine specific gravity and negative or mild proteinuria)
    5. Chronic renal failure or diuresis after acute renal failure (together with a low specific gravity of urine and an increased level of urea in the blood);
    6. Diabetes insipidus (together with a low specific gravity of urine, which does not change during a test with deprivation of fluid and a normal level of urea in the blood);
    7. Psychogenic craving for drinking (together with a low specific gravity of urine, which increases with a test with deprivation of fluid and a normal level of urea in the blood)
    Often causes polydipsia.

    Decrease in daily urine output - oliguria.
    Causes:
    1. Profuse diarrhea;
    2. Vomiting;
    3. Increase in edema (regardless of their origin);
    4. Too little fluid intake;

    Lack of urine or too little urine (no urination or urination) - anuria.
    Causes:
    a) Prerenal anuria (arising from extrarenal causes):
    1. Severe blood loss (hypovolemia - hypovolemic shock);
    2. Acute heart failure (cardiogenic shock);
    3. Acute vascular insufficiency (vascular shock);
    4. Indomitable vomiting;
    5. Severe diarrhea.
    b) Renal (secretory) anuria (associated with pathological processes in the kidneys):
    1. Sharp jades;
    2. Necronephrosis;
    3. Transfusion of incompatible blood;
    4. Severe chronic kidney disease.
    c) Obstructive (excretory) anuria (impossibility of urination):
    1. Blockage of the ureters with stones;
    2. Compression of the ureters by tumors developing near the ureters (neoplasms of the uterus, ovaries, bladder, metastases from other organs.

    COLOUR

    Normal urine color is straw-yellow.
    Color change may be due to the release of coloring compounds formed during organic changes or under the influence of food, drugs or contrast agents.

    Red or red-brown color (the color of meat slops)
    Causes:
    1. Macrohematuria;
    2. Hemoglobinuria;
    3. The presence of myoglobin in the urine;
    4. The presence of porphyrin in the urine;
    5. The presence of certain drugs or their metabolites in the urine.

    Dark yellow color (can be greenish or greenish-brown, the color of dark beer)
    Causes:
    1. Excretion of bilirubin in the urine (with parenchymal or obstructive jaundice).

    Greenish yellow color
    Causes:
    1. A high content of pus in the urine.

    Dirty brown or gray
    Causes:
    1. Pyuria with an alkaline reaction of urine.

    Very dark, almost black color
    Causes:
    1. Hemoglobinuria in acute hemolytic anemia.

    Whitish color
    Causes:
    1. Phosphaturia (the presence of large amounts of phosphates in the urine).
    It should be borne in mind that with prolonged standing of urine, its color may change. As a rule, it becomes more intense. In the case of formation of urobilin from colorless urobilinogen under the influence of light, the urine becomes dark yellow (to orange). In the case of methemoglobin formation, the urine becomes dark brown. In addition, the change in odor can be associated with the use of certain drugs, feed or feed additives.

    TRANSPARENCY

    Normal urine is clear.

    Cloudy urine can be caused by:
    1. The presence of erythrocytes in the urine;
    2. The presence of leukocytes in the urine;
    3. The presence of epithelial cells in the urine;
    4. The presence of bacteria in the urine (bacteria);
    5. The presence of fatty drops in the urine;
    6. The presence of mucus in the urine;
    7. Precipitation of salts.

    In addition, the clarity of urine depends on:
    1. Salt concentration;
    2. pH;
    3. Storage temperatures (low temperature promotes the precipitation of salts);
    4. Duration of storage (salts fall out during long-term storage).

    SMELL

    Normally, the urine of dogs and cats has a mild, specific odor.

    Odor changes can be caused by:
    1. Acetonuria (the appearance of the smell of acetone in diabetes mellitus);
    2. Bacterial infections (ammonia, unpleasant odor);
    3. Taking antibiotics or food additives (special specific smell).

    DENSITY

    Normal urine density in dogs 1.015-1.034 (minimum - 1.001, maximum 1.065), in cats - 1.020-1.040.
    Density is a measure of the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine.

    What matters
    1. The state of hydration of the animal;
    2. Drinking and eating habits;
    3. Ambient temperature;
    4. Injected drugs;
    5. The functional state or the number of renal tubules.

    Reasons for increased urine density:
    1. Glucose in the urine;
    2. Protein in urine (in large quantities);
    3. Medicines (or their metabolites) in the urine;
    4. Mannitol or dextran in urine (as a result of intravenous infusion).

    Reasons for a decrease in urine density:
    1. Diabetes mellitus;
    3. Acute kidney damage.

    You can talk about adequate renal response, when, after a short abstinence from drinking water, the specific gravity of urine rises to the average figures of the norm. An inadequate kidney response is considered if the specific gravity does not rise above the minimum values ​​with abstinence from water intake - isostenuria (greatly reduced ability to adapt).
    Causes:
    1. Chronic renal failure.

    Chemical research.

    NS

    Normal urine pH dogs and cats can be both slightly acidic and slightly alkaline, depending on the protein content in the diet. On average, urine pH ranges from 5-7.5 and is more often slightly acidic.

    Increase in urine pH (pH> 7.5) - urine alkalization.
    Causes:
    1. Consumption of plant foods;
    2. Profuse sour vomiting;
    3. Hyperkalemia;
    4. Resorption of edema;
    5. Primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism (accompanied by hypercalcemia);
    6. Metabolic or respiratory alkalosis;
    7. Bacterial cystitis;
    8. Introduction of sodium bicarbonate.

    Decrease in urine pH (pH around 5 and below) - acidification of urine.
    Causes:
    1. Metabolic or respiratory acidosis;
    2. Hypokalemia;
    3. Dehydration;
    4. Fever;
    5. Fasting;
    6. Prolonged muscular load;
    7. Diabetes mellitus;
    8. Chronic renal failure;
    9. Introduction of acidic salts (for example, ammonium chloride).

    PROTEIN

    Normal protein in urine is absent or its concentration is less than 100 mg / l.
    Proteinuria- the appearance of protein in the urine.

    Physiological proteinuria- cases of temporary appearance of protein in the urine, not associated with diseases.
    Causes:
    1. Reception of a large amount of feed with a high protein content;
    2. Strong physical activity;
    3. Epileptic seizures.

    Pathological proteinuria there is renal and extrarenal.

    Extrarenal proteinuria can be extrarenal and postrenal.

    Extrarenal extrarenal protenuria more often a temporary mild degree (300 mg / l).
    Causes:
    1. Heart failure;
    2. Diabetes mellitus;
    3. Elevated temperature;
    4. Anemia;
    5. Hypothermia;
    6. Allergy;
    7. The use of penicillin, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides;
    8. Burns;
    9. Dehydration;
    10. Hemoglobinuria;
    11. Myoglobinuria.
    Severity of proteinuria is not a reliable indicator of the severity of the underlying disease and its prognosis.

    Extrarenal postrenal proteinuria(false proteinuria, accidental proteinuria) rarely exceeds 1 g / l (except in cases of severe pyuria) and is accompanied by the formation of a large sediment.
    Causes:
    1. Cystitis;
    2. Pielitis;
    3. Prostatitis;
    4. Urethritis;
    5. Vulvovaginitis.
    6. Bleeding in the urinary tract.

    Renal proteinuria occurs when protein enters the urine in the kidney parenchyma. In most cases, it is associated with increased permeability of the kidney filter. At the same time, a high content of protein in the urine is found (more than 1 g / l). Microscopic examination of urine sediment reveals cylinders.
    Causes:
    1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
    2. Acute and chronic pyelonephritis;
    3. Severe chronic heart failure;
    4. Amyloidosis of the kidneys;
    5. Kidney neoplasms;
    6. Hydronephrosis of the kidneys;
    7. Lipoid nephrosis;
    8. Nephrotic syndrome;
    9. Immune diseases with damage to renal glomeruli by immune complexes;
    10. Severe anemia.

    Renal microalbuminuria- the presence of protein in urine at concentrations below the sensitivity of the reagent strips (from 1 to 30 mg / 100 ml). It is an early sensitive indicator of various chronic kidney diseases.

    Paraproteinuria- the appearance in the urine of a protein-globulin that does not have the properties of antibodies (Bens-Jones protein), consisting of light chains of immunoglobulins that easily pass through glomerular filters. This protein is secreted in plasmacytoma. Paraproteinuria develops without primary damage to the renal glomeruli.

    Tubular proteinuria- the appearance in the urine of small proteins (α1-microglobulin, β2-microglobulin, lysozyme, retinol-binding protein). They are normally present in the glomerular filtrate, but are reabsorbed in the renal tubules. When the epithelium of the renal tubules is damaged, these proteins appear in the urine (determined only by electrophoresis). Tubular proteinuria is an early indicator of renal tubular damage in the absence of concomitant changes in circulating urea and creatinine levels.
    Causes:
    1. Medicines (aminoglycosides, cyclosporine);
    2. Heavy metals (lead);
    3. Analgesics (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory substances);
    4. Ischemia;
    5. Metabolic diseases (Fanconi-like syndrome).

    False positive protein counts obtained with the test strip are typical for alkaline urine (pH 8).

    False negative protein counts obtained using the test strip are associated with the fact that the test strips show, first of all, the level of albumin (paraproteinuria and tubular proteinuria are not detected) and their content in the urine is higher than 30 mg \ 100 ml (microalbuminuria is not detected).
    Proteinuria assessment should be carried out taking into account clinical symptoms (fluid accumulation, edema) and other laboratory parameters (blood protein level, albumin to globulin ratio, urea, creatinine, serum lipids, cholesterol level).

    GLUCOSE

    Normally, there is no glucose in the urine.

    Glucosuria- the presence of glucose in the urine.

    1. Glucosuria with a high specific gravity of urine(1,030) and an increased blood glucose level (3.3 - 5 mmol / l) - a criterion for diabetes mellitus (Diadetes mellitus).
    It should be borne in mind that animals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) can significantly change the renal glucose threshold (the concentration of glucose in the blood, above which glucose begins to flow into the urine). Sometimes, with persistent normoglycemia, glucosuria persists (the renal glucose threshold is lowered). And with the development of glomerulosclerosis, the renal glucose threshold increases, and glucosuria may not exist even with severe hyperglycemia.

    2.Renal glucosuria- is recorded with an average specific gravity of urine and a normal blood glucose level. A marker of tubular dysfunction is impairment of reabsorption.
    Causes:
    1. Primary renal glucosuria in some dog breeds (Scottish Terriers, Norwegian Elkhounds, mixed breed dogs);
    2. A component of general renal tubular dysfunction - Fanconi-like syndrome (maybe hereditary and acquired; glucose, amino acids, small globulins, phosphate and bicarbonate are excreted in the urine; described in Besenjs, Norwegian Elkhounds, Shetland Sheepdogs, Miniature Schnauchers);
    3. The use of certain nephrotoxic drugs.
    4. Acute renal failure or toxicity of aminoglycosides - if the level of urea in the blood is increased.

    3. Glucosuria with reduced specific gravity of urine(1.015 - 1.018) can be with the introduction of glucose.
    4. Moderate glucosuria occurs in healthy animals with a significant nutritional load with feeds with a high carbohydrate content.

    False positive result when determining glucose in urine with test strips, it is possible in cats with cystitis.

    False negative result when determining glucose in urine with test strips, it is possible in dogs in the presence of ascorbic acid (it is synthesized in dogs in various quantities).

    BILIRUBIN

    Normally, there is no bilirubin in the urine of cats. Concentrated dog urine may contain trace amounts of bilirubin.

    Bilirubinuria- the appearance of bilirubin (direct) in the urine.
    Causes:
    1. Parenchymal jaundice (damage to the liver parenchyma);
    2. Obstructive jaundice (violation of the outflow of bile).

    It is used as an express method for the differential diagnosis of hemolytic jaundice - bilirubinuria is not typical for them, since indirect bilirubin does not pass through the renal filter.

    UROBILINOGEN

    Urobilinogen upper limit of norm in urine about 10 mg / l.

    Urobilinogenuria- an increase in the level of urobilinogen in the urine.
    Causes:
    1. Increase in hemoglobin catabolism: hemolytic anemia, intravascular hemolysis (transfusion of incompatible blood, infections, sepsis), pernicious anemia, polycythemia, resorption of massive hematomas;
    2. Increased formation of urobilinogen in the gastrointestinal tract: enterocolitis, ileitis;
    3. Increased formation and reabsorption of urobilinogen in inflammation of the biliary system - cholangitis;
    4. Dysfunction of the liver: chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver, toxic liver damage (poisoning with organic compounds, toxins in infectious diseases and sepsis); secondary liver failure (heart and circulatory failure, liver tumors);
    5. Liver bypass surgery: liver cirrhosis with portal hypertension, thrombosis, renal vein obstruction.

    Of particular diagnostic value is:
    1. With lesions of the liver parenchyma in cases without jaundice;
    2. For differential diagnosis of parenchymal jaundice from obstructive jaundice, in which there is no urobilinogenuria.

    KETONE BODIES

    Normally, there are no ketone bodies in the urine.

    Ketonuria- the appearance of ketone bodies in the urine (as a result of accelerated incomplete oxidation of fatty acids as an energy source).
    Causes:
    1. Severe decompensation of type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) and long-term type II diabetes (non-insulin dependent) with depletion of pancreatic beta cells and the development of absolute insulin deficiency.
    2. Severe - hyperketonemic diabetic coma;
    3. Precomatous states;
    4. Cerebral coma;
    5. Prolonged fasting;
    6. Severe fever;
    7. Hyperinsulinism;
    8. Hypercatecholemia;
    9. Postoperative period.

    NITRITES

    Normally, there are no nitrites in the urine.

    The appearance of nitrites in the urine     indicates an infection of the urinary tract, since many pathogenic bacteria reduce the nitrates present in the urine to nitrites.
    Of particular diagnostic value is when determining asymptomatic urinary tract infections (at risk - animals with prostate neoplasms, patients with diabetes mellitus, after urological operations or instrumental procedures on the urinary tract).

    Erythrocytes

    Normally, there are no red blood cells in the urine. or physiological microhematuria is allowed when examining with test strips up to 3 erythrocytes / μl of urine.

    Hematuria- the content of red blood cells in the urine in an amount of more than 5 in 1 μl of urine.

    Macrohematuria- installed with the naked eye.

    Microhematuria- detected only with test strips or microscopy. Often due to cystocentesis or catheterization.

    Hematuria originating from the bladder and urethra.
    In about 75% of cases of gross hematuria, it is often combined with dysuria and pain on palpation.
    Causes:
    1. Stones in the bladder and urethra;
    2. Infectious or drug-induced (cyclophosphamide) cystitis;
    3. Urethritis;
    4. Tumors of the bladder;
    5. Injuries to the bladder and urethra (crushing, rupture).
    An admixture of blood only at the beginning of urination indicates bleeding between the neck of the bladder and the opening of the urethra.
    An admixture of blood, mainly at the end of urination, indicates bleeding in the bladder.

    Hematuria originating from the kidneys (approximately 25% of hematuria cases).
    Uniform hematuria from beginning to end of urination. Microscopic examination of the sediment in this case reveals erythrocyte casts. Such bleeding is relatively rare, associated with proteinuria, and less intense than bleeding in the urinary tract.
    Causes:
    1. Physical overload;
    2. Infectious diseases (leptospirosis, septicemia);
    3. Hemorrhagic diathesis of various etiologies;
    4. Coagulopathy (dicumarol poisoning);
    5. Consumption coagulopathy (DIC syndrome);
    6. Kidney injury;
    7. Thrombosis of the vessels of the kidneys;
    8. Kidney neoplasms;
    9. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
    10. Pyelitis, pyelonephritis;
    11. Glomerulo- and tubulonephrosis (poisoning, taking medications);
    12. Severe venous congestion;
    13. Displacement of the spleen;
    14. Systemic lupus erythematosus;
    15. Overdose of anticoagulants, sulfonamides, urotropin.
    16. Idiopathic renal hematuria.
    Bleeding occurring independently of urination, localized in the urethra, prepuce, vagina, uterus (estrus) or prostate gland.

    HEMOGLOBIN, MYOGLOBIN

    Normally, when tested with test strips, it is absent.

    Myoglobinuria reasons:
    1. Muscle damage (the level of creatine kinase rises in the circulating blood).
    Hemoglobinuria is always accompanied by hemoglobinemia. If hemolyzed red blood cells are found in the urinary sediment, then the cause is hematuria.

    Microscopic examination of the sediment.

    There are elements of organized and unorganized urine sediment. The main elements of the organized sediment are erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelium and casts; unorganized - crystalline and amorphous salts.

    EPITHELIUM

    Fine in the urine sediment, single cells of the flat (urethra) and transitional epithelium (pelvis, ureters, bladder) are found in the field of view. The renal epithelium (tubules) is normally absent.

    Squamous epithelial cells. Normally, in females, it is found in greater numbers. The detection of layers of squamous epithelium and horny scales in the sediment is a sign of squamous metaplasia of the urinary tract mucosa.

    Transitional epithelial cells.
    The reasons for the significant increase in their number:
    1. Acute inflammatory processes in the bladder and renal pelvis;
    2. Intoxication;
    3. Urolithiasis;
    4. Neoplasms of the urinary tract.

    Epithelial cells of the urinary tubules (renal epithelium).
    The reasons for their appearance:
    1. Jade;
    2. Intoxication;
    3. Insufficiency of blood circulation;
    4. Necrotic nephrosis (in case of poisoning with mercuric chloride, antifreeze, dichloroethane) - epithelium in a very large amount;
    5. Amyloidosis of the kidneys (in the albuminemic stage is rare, in the edematous-hypertensive and azotemic stage - often);
    6. Lipoid nephrosis (desquamated renal epithelium is often found fatty degenerated).
    If conglomerates of epithelial cells are found, especially moderately or significantly varying in shape and / or size, further cytological examination is necessary to determine the possible malignancy of these cells.

    LEUKOCYTES

    Normally, leukocytes are absent or there may be single leukocytes per field of view (0-3 leukocytes per field of view at 400 magnification).

    Leukocyturia- more than 3 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope with a magnification of 400.
    Pyuria- over 60 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope with a magnification of 400.

    Infectious leukocyturia, often pyuria.
    Causes:
    1. Inflammatory processes in the bladder, urethra, renal pelvis.
    2. Infected discharge from the prostate gland, vagina, uterus.

    Aseptic leukocyturia.
    Causes:
    1. Glomerulonephritis;
    2. Amyloidosis;
    3. Chronic interstitial nephritis.

    Erythrocytes

    Normally, urine sediment is absent or single in the preparation (0-3 in the field of view with a magnification of 400).
    The appearance or increase in the number of red blood cells in the urine sediment is called hematuria.
    For reasons, see the section "Urine chemistry" above.

    CYLINDERS

    Fine in the urine sediment, hyaline and granular cylinders - single in the preparation - can be found with unchanged urine.
    Urinary cylinders not found in alkaline urine. Neither the number nor the type of urinary casts is indicative of the severity of the disease and is not specific to any kidney injury. The absence of cylinders in the urine sediment does not indicate the absence of kidney disease.

    Cylindruria- the presence in the urine of an increased number of cylinders of any type.

    Hyaline casts are made up of protein that has entered the urine due to congestion or inflammation.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Proteinuria not associated with kidney damage (albuminemia, venous congestion in the kidneys, high physical activity, cooling);
    2. Feverish conditions;
    3. Various organic kidney damage, both acute and chronic;
    4. Dehydration.
    There is no correlation between the severity of proteinuria and the number of hyaline casts, since the formation of casts depends on urine pH.

    Granular cylinders- consist of tubular epithelial cells.
    Reasons for education:
    1. The presence of pronounced degeneration in the epithelium of the tubules (necrosis of the epithelium of the tubules, inflammation of the kidneys).
    Waxy cylinders.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Severe lesions of the renal parenchyma (both acute and chronic).

    Erythrocyte casts are formed from accumulations of red blood cells. Their presence in the urine sediment indicates the renal origin of hematuria.
    Causes:
    1. Inflammatory kidney disease;
    2. Bleeding into the renal parenchyma;
    3. Kidney infarction.

    Leukocyte casts- are quite rare.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Pyelonephritis.

    SALTS AND OTHER ELEMENTS


    The precipitation of salts depends on the properties of urine, in particular on its pH.

    In acidic urine precipitate:
    1. Uric acid
    2. Uric acid salts;
    3. Calcium phosphate;
    4. Calcium sulfate.

    In the urine, which gives the main (alkaline) reaction, precipitate:
    1. Amorphous phosphates;
    2. Triple phosphates;
    3. Neutral magnesium phosphate;
    4. Calcium carbonate;
    5. Crystals of sulfonamides.

    Crystalluria- the appearance of crystals in the urinary sediment.

    Uric acid.
    Fine crystals of uric acid are absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Pathologically acidic urine pH in renal failure (early sedimentation - within an hour after urination);
    2. Fever;
    3. Conditions accompanied by increased tissue decay (leukemia, massive disintegrating tumors, pneumonia in the stage of resolution);
    4. Heavy physical activity;
    5. Uric acid diathesis;
    6. Feeding exclusively with meat feed.

    Amorphous urates- uric acid salts give the urine sediment a brick-pink color.
    Fine- single in the field of view.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
    2. Chronic renal failure;
    3. "Congestive kidney";
    4. Fever.

    Oxalates- oxalic acid salts, mainly calcium oxalate.
    Fine oxalates are single in the field of view.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Pyelonephritis;
    2. Diabetes mellitus;
    3. Violation of calcium metabolism;
    4. After epileptic seizures;
    5. Poisoning with ethylene glycol (antifreeze).

    Triple phosphates, neutral phosphates, calcium carbonate.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Cystitis;
    2. Abundant intake of vegetable feed;
    3. Vomiting.
    May cause the development of calculi.

    Acid ammonium urate.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Cystitis with ammoniacal fermentation in the bladder;
    2. Uric acid renal infarction in newborns.
    3. Lack of liver function, especially with congenital portosystemic shunts;
    4. In Dalmatian Great Danes in the absence of pathology.

    Cystine crystals.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance: cytinosis (congenital disorder of amino acid metabolism).

    Crystals of leucine, tyrosine.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Acute yellow atrophy of the liver;
    2. Leukemia;
    3. Poisoning with phosphorus.

    Cholesterol crystals.
    Fine absent.

    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Amyloid and lipoid dystrophy of the kidneys;
    2. Kidney neoplasms;
    3. Kidney abscess.

    Fatty acid.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance (they are very rare):
    1. Fatty degeneration of the kidneys;
    2. Disintegration of the epithelium of the renal tubules.

    Hemosiderin- a breakdown product of hemoglobin.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance - hemolytic anemia with intravascular hemolysis of erythrocytes.

    Hematoidin- a breakdown product of hemoglobin that does not contain iron.
    Fine absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Calculous (associated with the formation of stones) pyelitis;
    2. Kidney abscess;
    3. Neoplasms of the bladder and kidneys.

    BACTERIA

    Normally bacteria are absent or determined in urine obtained during spontaneous urination or with the help of a catheter, in an amount of not more than 2x103 bact. / ml of urine.

    The quantity of bacteria in the urine is of decisive importance.
     100,000 (1x105) and more microbial bodies per ml of urine is an indirect sign of inflammation in the urinary organs.
     1000 - 10000 (1x103 - 1x104) microbial bodies per ml of urine - raise suspicion of inflammatory processes in the urinary tract. In females, this amount may be normal.
     less than 1000 microbial bodies per ml of urine is regarded as the result of secondary contamination.

    In urine obtained by cystocentesis, bacteria should not normally be present at all.
    In the study of the general analysis of urine, only the fact of bacteriuria is ascertained. In the native preparation, 1 bacterium in the oil immersion field of view corresponds to 10,000 (1x104) bact. / Ml, but bacteriological research is necessary to accurately determine the quantitative characteristics.
    The presence of a urinary tract infection can be signaled by simultaneously detected bacteriuria, hematuria and pyuria.

    YEAST MUSHROOMS

    Normally absent.
    Reasons for the appearance:
    1. Glucosuria;
    2. Antibiotic therapy;
    3. Long-term storage of urine.

In the article I will give the decoding of the results of the biochemical analysis of cat urine. I'll tell you what indicators are the norm. I will describe what impurities can be detected in the analysis, and what are the reasons for this phenomenon.

The study of urine of cats and dogs is carried out for diagnosis and further treatment. Timely laboratory analysis allows you to timely identify serious disorders of the urinary system caused by infection, trauma, etc.

The liquid for analysis is collected in three ways: using a special filler that does not absorb liquid, by puncturing the bladder and a catheter. The last two procedures are carried out necessarily in a veterinary clinic.

The results of the study of cat urine are recorded in a special plate, which greatly facilitates their decoding.


Physical indicators

This group includes the following indicators:

  • Quantity... Normally, an adult cat, weighing 4-5 kg, secretes about 100-150 ml of urine per day. An increase in this amount indicates the possible development of diabetes mellitus, pyelonephritis, chronic renal failure. Lack of urine can be observed with dehydration caused by diarrhea, vomiting.
  • Sediment... Its insignificant amount is acceptable. It consists of epithelial cells, calculi (crystals and salts), microorganisms. If the amount of sediment exceeds the norm, this indicates the development of the disease.
  • Color or COL... Cat urine should be yellow in color. A red or brownish color indicates the presence of blood in the urine. indicates an increased amount of bilirubin. If pus is present, the urine will be slightly greenish. Very light, almost white urine indicates an increase in the amount of phosphates.
  • Transparency or CLA... Normally, cat urine is clear. In case of various diseases, it may contain inclusions of salts, bacteria, leukocytes, erythrocytes, and fatty drops. Also, the transparency depends on the period and temperature of storage of urine.
  • Smell... The appearance of an acetone odor in urine indicates the development of diabetes mellitus. If the urine smells like ammonia, the animal is developing a bacterial infection. Also, some foods and medicines can change the smell of urine.
  • Density... In cats, urine should have an average density of 1.020-1.040. An increase in these indicators indicates the presence of protein and glucose in urine. Also, density may increase with intravenous fluids and certain medications. A decrease in the indicator speaks of chronic renal failure, kidney disease, diabetes mellitus.

Cat urine chemistry

This group includes the study of indicators such as pH, protein, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, ketone bodies, nitrites, erythrocytes, hemoglobin.

Normally, the alkaline pH balance in cats is 5-7.5. An increase indicates alkalization, which may be the result of the development of cystitis, the presence of a large amount of plant foods in the diet, and hyperkalemia.

A decrease in the indicator (acidification of urine) may be the result of chronic renal failure, dehydration, fever, prolonged fasting, diabetes mellitus.

Proteins should not be present in the urine.

The permitted concentration is 100 mg per liter. Protein build-up can be the result of increased stress, eating a cat food rich in protein.

Proteinuria is also observed with anemia, heart failure, dehydration, fever, diabetes mellitus. Often the appearance of protein accompanies the development of cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, kidney disease (amyloidosis, pyelonephritis, etc.).

The appearance of glucose in the urine is abnormal. This may indicate the development of diabetes mellitus. Also, the appearance of glucose is observed against the background of intravenous infusions and the introduction of steroids, adrenaline.

The presence of bilirubin in the urine is due to jaundice. The norm of urobilinogen is no more than 10 mg per liter. An increase in this indicator may indicate the following diseases: enterocolitis, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, poisoning with toxic substances.

The appearance of ketone bodies in the urine is observed in diabetic coma, prolonged fasting, and fever. The presence of nitrites indicates that the infection has entered the urinary tract.

The presence of hemoglobin can be a sign of babesiosis.

The appearance of erythrocytes in the urine indicates the development of such serious pathologies as leptospirosis, pyelonephritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, tumors in the bladder cavity, cystitis. Also, blood appears with urolithiasis, kidney injury and other urinary organs.


Sediment microscopy

The development of the disease can be recognized by microscopic examination of the sediment:

  • Epithelium... A significant increase indicates nephritis, intoxication, nephrosis.
  • Erythrocytes... The allowed content is 0-3 per field of view. An increase in levels is often seen with infections.
  • Cylinders... An increase in the amount indicates the development of inflammatory processes in the kidneys, bleeding into the parenchyma. Also, cilinduria is observed with pyelonephritis, fever, dehydration.
  • Bacteria... Small amounts of bacteria may be present in urine collected with a catheter. An increase indicates the development of an infection or urolithiasis.
  • Leukocytes... An increase in the level occurs with nephritis, glomerulonephritis and other infectious diseases.
  • Salt... Often the appearance of calculi (sand, oxalates, struvites, etc.) in the urine speaks of.

Urine examination is an effective measure for diagnosing diseases of the urinary system.

With this analysis, the development of an infection can be recognized in a timely manner. However, a slight deviation from the norm of some indicators is sometimes observed when taking certain medications, eating disorders or drinking regimen.