Emil, or about education

Thank you for downloading the book from the free e-library http://filosoff.org/ Happy reading! Jean-Jacques Jacques Rousseau Emile, or on Education This collection of reflections and observations, sketched out without order and almost without connection, was begun to please a kind mother who knows how to think2. At first I intended to confine myself to a note of a few pages, but against my will I got carried away by the plot, and this note became something of a work, too voluminous, of course, in its content, but too short in relation to the subject on which it treats. For a long time I did not dare to publish it, and it often, when I was working on it, made me feel that it was not enough to write a few pamphlets in order to be able to compose a book. After futile efforts to improve it, I found it necessary to publish it in the form in which it is, believing that the most important thing here is to draw public attention to this subject and that if my thoughts are wrong, then, by arousing right thoughts in others, I still I'm not really wasting my time. A person who, from his solitude, presents to the public the pages written by him, without having admirers, or a party that would defend them, without even knowing what they think or say about them - such a person should not be afraid if he is mistaken that he misconceptions will be accepted indiscriminately. I won't expand on the importance of a good upbringing; I will also not go into detail to prove that the education now accepted is bad. Thousands of others have already done this before me, and I do not want to fill the book with things that have long been known to everyone. I will only note that exclamations against the established practice have been heard since time immemorial, and meanwhile they do not think of suggesting a better one. The literature and knowledge of our age tends much more towards destruction than towards creation. They criticize in an instructive tone, but in order to offer, you need to take a different tone, which philosophical arrogance does not really like. In spite of so many inventions which, they say, have no other purpose than the public good, the first of all goods, the art of educating people, is still forgotten. The subject which I have taken up is by no means new even after Locke's book, and I am very much afraid that it will not remain the same after my book. Childhood is not known5: given the false notions that exist about it, the farther they go, the more they err. The wisest among us are chasing what it is important for people to know, without regard to whether children are able to learn it. They are constantly looking for an adult in a child, not thinking about what he is before he becomes an adult. This is the question which I most diligently studied, so that it might be possible, if my whole method turns out to be chimerical and false, nevertheless, to benefit from my observations. Perhaps I misunderstood what to do. But I think I saw well the subject on which we must work. So, first of all, study your pupils well, for you absolutely do not know them. And if it is for this purpose that you are reading this book, then I think it will bring you some benefit. As regards the system I have adopted, which in this case is nothing but the following of nature itself, this part will puzzle the reader most of all. From the same side, no doubt, they will attack me and, perhaps, they will be right. The reader will think that before him is not a treatise on education, but rather the dream of a dreamer about education. But what to do? I write on the basis of not other people's ideas, but my own. I see things differently than other people. I have been reproached for this for a long time. But is it in my power to look through other people's eyes and be carried away by other people's ideas? No. It depends on me not to persist in my opinion, not to consider myself alone wiser than the whole world. I cannot change the feeling, but I can not trust my opinion - that's all I can do and what I do. If sometimes I take a decisive tone, it is not in order to impress the reader with it, but in order to speak to him as I think. Why would I suggest in the form of a doubt what I personally have no doubt about? I express exactly what is going on in my mind. Freely expressing my opinion, I far from consider it irrefutable and constantly accompany it with arguments to be weighed and judged by them. But although I do not wish to persist in defending my ideas, nevertheless I consider it my duty to state them, for the main points in which I completely disagree with the opinion of others are far from being without interest. They belong to those rules about which it is very important to know whether they are true or false, and which bring the human race to happiness or misfortune. “Offer what is feasible,” they keep repeating to me. It's like saying: "Offer what they do, or at least such a good that would coexist with the existing evil." Such a project in relation to a certain kind of objects is much more chimerical than my projects, because in such an alliance good is spoiled, and evil is not healed. I would rather follow the established practice in everything than accept the best only half: then there would be less contradiction in a person - he cannot simultaneously strive for two opposite goals. Fathers and mothers, what you wish to do is doable. Do I have to cater to your whim? In any kind of project, two things must be taken into account: firstly, the absolute merit of the project, and secondly, the ease of its execution. In the first respect, in order for a project to be admissible and executable in itself, it is sufficient if the dignity contained in it corresponds to the nature of the object. Here, for example, it is sufficient if the proposed education is suitable for a person and well adapted to the human heart. The second consideration depends on the relations that exist in a certain situation of people. These relations are not essential for the object and, consequently, are not necessary and can be modified indefinitely. Thus, a different education is applicable in Switzerland and unsuitable for France. Some are suitable for the bourgeois, others for the nobility. The greater or lesser ease of execution depends on a thousand circumstances that cannot be determined otherwise than in the particular application of the method to this or that country, to this or that condition. But all these particular applications, not essential for my purpose, do not enter into my plan. Others can deal with them if they want - each for the country or state that they have in mind. For me, it is enough that wherever people are born, it would be possible to create from them what I propose, and that what was created turned out to be the best for themselves and for others. If I have not fulfilled this obligation, it is without a doubt my fault. But if I have fulfilled it, the reader has no right to demand more from me, for that is all I promised. BOOK I Everything comes out good from the hands of the Creator, everything degenerates in the hands of man. He forces one soil to nourish the plants grown on another, one tree to bear the fruit of another. He mixes and confuses climates, elements, seasons. He disfigures his dog, his horse, his slave. He turns everything upside down, distorts everything, loves the ugly, the monstrous. He does not want to see anything as nature created it, not excluding man: and he needs to train a man, like a horse for an arena, he needs to remake in his own way, as he uprooted a tree in his garden. Without it, everything would go even worse, and our breed does not want to receive only half the finish. In the current order of things, a man left to himself from birth would be the ugliest of all. Prejudices, authority, necessity, example, all social institutions, which completely subjugated us, would stifle nature in him and give nothing in return for it. It would be like a tree that accidentally grew in the middle of the road and which passers-by would soon destroy, touching it from all sides and bending it in all directions. I appeal to you, tender and prudent mother *, who managed to avoid such a path and protect the growing tree from collisions with people's opinions! Take care, water the young plant until it wilts - its fruits will once be your delight. Build from an early age a fence around the soul of your child; the circle may be outlined by another, but you alone must put a lattice on it**. The initial education is the most important, and this initial education belongs unquestionably to women. If the Creator of nature wanted it to belong to men, he would give them milk to feed their children. Therefore, in our treatises on education, always address women primarily; for, besides the fact that it is more convenient for them than men to take care of education and they always have a stronger influence on it, the very success of the matter interests them much more, because as soon as they are widowed, they almost fall under the power of their children, then the latter make them feel strongly the consequences - good or bad - of the way they have been brought up. Laws, which are always so much occupied with property and so little with persons, because they have peace and not virtue as their end, do not give mothers sufficient power. Meanwhile, their position is more correct than the position of their fathers, their duties are more difficult, their care is more necessary for the decency of the family, and, in general, they have more affection for children. There are cases where a son who does not respect his father can be excused in some way; but if in any case the son were so depraved that he would not honor his mother - the mother who carried him in her womb, fed him with her milk, who for years forgot herself to attend exclusively to him - such the pitiful creature should have been strangled rather, like a monster unworthy to look at the light of God. “Mothers,” they say, “spoil their children.” This is no doubt their fault; but perhaps they are less guilty than you who are corrupting children. A mother wants her child to be happy, to be so from this very moment. In this she is right. If she is deceived in the means, she needs to be enlightened. Ambition, greed, tyranny, false foresight of fathers, as well as their carelessness, cruel insensitivity, are a hundred times more disastrous for children than the blind tenderness of a mother. However, it is necessary to clarify the meaning that I attach to the word "mother", which will be done below. * I am assured that Mr. Formey1 thinks that I meant my mother here, and that he says this in some essay. To assure of this is to mock cruelly at Formeus or at me. Plants are given a certain look through processing, and people through education.

Socio-political and philosophical views of Rousseau. Power and wealth created inequality, Rousseau argued, and man therefore lost his freedom. Rousseau reasoned like a sensualist: there is nothing in our consciousness that would not be received through sensations, through the senses.
Natural and free education. Children should be brought up, according to Rousseau, naturally, in accordance with nature. This means that in education it is necessary to follow the nature of the child, take into account his age characteristics. He believed that education comes from three sources: from nature, from the surrounding people and from things. Education by nature, in his opinion, is carried out through the "internal" development of human abilities, the development of the senses; education by people is teaching a person to use the development of these abilities and organs; and finally, education from things is a person's own experience, acquired by him from the things that he encounters and which affect him. Correct education will be when all three factors act in concert, in one direction.
In direct connection with natural education, Rousseau also placed free education. He demanded to respect the personality of the child, to take into account his interests and requests. Rousseau attached great importance to the guiding role of the educator. The educator, he said, only leads his pupil to the solution of the problem, directs his interests in such a way that the child himself does not notice this, and has mainly an indirect effect. He organizes the whole environment, all the influences surrounding the child in such a way that they suggest certain solutions. He denied coercion as a method of education.
age periodization. Rousseau divided the life of his pupil into four periods. The first period - from birth to 2 years - is the time when the focus should be on the physical education of children. The second period - from 2 to 12 years, in his words, the period of "sleep of the mind", when the child still cannot reason and think logically, when it is necessary to develop mainly "external feelings", when the child's strength accumulates in order to find his way out already at an older age. The third period is from 12 to 15 years, during these years mental education is widely developed, the mental needs of the child are satisfied. The fourth period - "the period of storms and passions" - from 15 years to adulthood, when moral education is predominantly carried out.
In early childhood (up to two years), the basis of everything is physical education. If possible, the mother should feed the child herself. Rousseau dwells in detail on the physical education of Emil. He points out how to temper the child and strengthen his physical strength. From the age of two, a new period of education begins. Rousseau gives a whole series of instructions on how to develop feelings. It is still necessary to strengthen the health of the child, his physical development. It would be good for a child under 12 not to know books at all; but if he has learned to read, let Robinson Crusoe be his first and only book. Emil wants to garden and plant beans, but on the land of the gardener Robert, just in the place where, it turns out, Robert has already planted melons. From the encounter between Emil and Robert, the child learns how the idea of ​​property goes back naturally to the right of "first possession through labor." Rejecting punishment, Rousseau puts forward the method of "natural consequences". The freedom of a child can only be limited by things. A child, faced with nature, will undoubtedly understand that one must obey its laws. The same considerations should also be taken as the basis of relations with people. If a child breaks everything he touches, don't get angry, just try to remove from him everything that he can spoil. So he broke the chair he used, do not rush to give him a new one. By the age of twelve, Emil is physically strong, independent, able to quickly navigate and grasp the most important, he learned the world around him through his external senses. And he is fully prepared to enter the third period of his development, when mental and labor education is carried out. When choosing subjects for study, it is necessary to proceed from the interest of the child. Naturally, the child's interest is directed to what he sees, and therefore he is interested in geography, astronomy, and natural history. Rousseau puts Emil in the position of a researcher who discovers scientific truths, invents a compass, etc. Rousseau's didactics is based on the development of a child's initiative, the ability to observe, and quick wits. Emil is trained in a number of useful professions. First of all, the child learns carpentry, which Rousseau greatly appreciates in terms of education, and then gets acquainted with a number of other crafts. Emil lives the life of a craftsman, he is imbued with respect for the man of labor, labor itself and labor communication. Emile is now prepared for life, and in his sixteenth year Rousseau returns him to society. There comes the fourth period - the period of moral education, and it can be given only in society. The depraved city is not terrible now to Emil, who is sufficiently tempered from city temptations. Rousseau puts forward three tasks of moral education: this is the education of good feelings, good judgments and good will. Let a young man observe pictures of human suffering, need and grief, he will also see good examples; not moral reasoning, but real deeds bring up good feelings in him. The education of good judgments is carried out, according to Rousseau, by studying the biographies of great people, by studying history. Education of good will can be only through the performance of good deeds.
A young man should live an active life: move, engage in physical labor, be in the fresh air for a long time. The upbringing of a woman. Rousseau considers with great attention the question of which wife to choose for Emile. Emile's bride Sophie's upbringing should be the opposite of that of her fiancé. The appointment of a woman, in the understanding of Rousseau, is completely different from the appointment of a man. She must be brought up for the home. Adaptation to the opinions of others, the absence of independent judgments, submission to someone else's will - this is the destiny of a woman.

21. "Regulations on a unified labor school." "Basic principles of a unified labor school." Their characteristic.

UNIFIED LABOR SCHOOL - a school accessible to the entire population, giving all children of a certain age, regardless of the social and property status of their parents, general educational and labor knowledge, skills and abilities. With the concept of E. t. sh. inextricably linked are the continuity of the various levels of the school, i.e., the unhindered transition from one (lower) level of education to the next (higher), the unity of the goals of upbringing and education, as well as the main ped. principles on which the educational work of the school is built. At the heart of E. t. sh. There are two inextricably linked ideas: the idea of ​​unity and the idea of ​​labor training and education. The idea of ​​labor training arose in connection with the development of handicrafts and manufactory production. The regulation "On the unified labor school of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic" outlined the ways of building such a school. It established the socialist principles of building the system: the connection of school with life, the implementation of national and sexual equality, teaching in the native language, the continuity of various levels of education. Entered E. t. sh. with a nine-year term of study, divided into two stages: the first - for children from 8 to 13 years old (5-year course), the second - from 13 to 17 years old (4-year course). On the basis of this school, the broad development of prof. education for boys and girls from the age of 17.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

UNIFIED LABOR SCHOOL

· scope for creativity of pedagogical councils of schools;

· "sufficient scope for private initiative";

· "software minimum" as a proposal, not as a binding;

· "fixed attention on specially selected subjects" (starting from the seventh year of study);

· the principle of ease of learning;

· the principle of "correspondence of teaching to the natural inclinations of children";

· labor, physical and aesthetic education;

The principle of natural conformity: “Analysis by teachers of the inclinations and characteristics of the character of each student and perhaps a more complete adaptation to his personal needs of what the school gives him and what the school asks from him”;

· "concern for the underachievers is the first concern of the democratic school";

· the principle of collaborative learning.

The new school should be labor. The source of the aspirations of the school for work is the direct desire to acquaint students with what they will most need in life, with agricultural and industrial labor in all its varieties.

The purpose of the labor school is a polytechnical education, giving children practical acquaintance with the methods of all the most important forms of labor, partly in a training workshop or on a school farm, partly in factories, factories, etc.

Play, walk, conversation provide material for collective and individual thought in the activities of children. Starting with the child himself and his surroundings, everything is the subject of questions and answers, stories, writings, images, imitations. The teacher systematizes and directs the inquisitiveness of the child and his thirst for movement in such a way that the richest results are obtained. All this is the main subject of teaching, like a children's encyclopedia, it now takes on the character of studying human culture in connection with nature.

At the same time, students are always encouraged to engage in free activities that are of particular interest to them: personal research, essays, abstracts, models, collections, etc.

By aesthetic education one should understand not the teaching of some simplified children's art, but the systematic development of the senses and creative abilities, which expands the opportunity to enjoy beauty and create it.

Gymnastics and sports should develop not only strength and dexterity, but also the ability for distinct collective actions, the spirit of mutual assistance, etc.

An extremely important principle of the renovated school will be the fullest possible individualization of education. By individualization we must understand the analysis by the teachers of the inclinations and characteristics of the character of each student and, as far as possible, a more complete adaptation to his personal needs of what the school gives him and what the school asks from him. Concern for those who lag behind is the first concern of the democratic school, for backwardness in the overwhelming majority of cases is due not to a lack of natural abilities, but to worse domestic conditions.

Children should participate in all school life. To do this, they must enjoy the right of self-government and show constant active mutual assistance. Preparing to become citizens of the state, they should feel as soon as possible citizens of their school. The class or some other group of students must self-govern the whole mass. For this, as many positions as possible are established. These positions should not be long-term. Children should be on duty on them from one day to two weeks, the change should take place in turn or by lot.

22. Educational activities and pedagogical views of Robert Owen.

A more complete version

Pedagogical ideas and activities of R. Owen in the New Lanark period
Robert Owen (1771-1858) lived in England at the time of the Industrial Revolution.
Owen came to the conclusion that the character of a person, his personality is shaped by the environment and upbringing. Human nature, Owen believed, is good, he has all the data to be virtuous. And if the children are in proper conditions and their upbringing is organized correctly, it is possible to create new, intelligent people, and then with their help to peacefully transform modern vicious social relations.
R. Owen's idea about the formation of a person's character by environment and upbringing was first formulated by him in the work “A New Look at Society, or Experiments on the Formation of Human Character (1813-1814). During his thirty-year life in New Lanark (until the end of 1829), R. Owen carried out a number of philanthropic activities there: he reduced the working day, which at that time lasted fourteen to sixteen hours, to ten and three-quarters of an hour, increased wages , and paid it during the crisis, when the factory had to be temporarily closed, built new housing for workers, organized their supply with everything they needed at low prices. Owen paid much attention to cultural and educational work among the adult population and public education of the younger generation.
During this period of his activity, Owen saw the goal of education in the formation in children from the earliest years of a “reasonable character” useful to society. For this, he believed, a system of educational institutions should be created, covering all age groups of the village. So, on January 1, 1816, the “New Institute for the Formation of Character” was opened in the center of New Lanark, which combined the institutions previously organized by Owen: “a school for small children (it consisted of a nursery for babies from one to three years old, a preschool institution for children aged 3 to 5 and playgrounds) and a primary school for children aged 5 to 10.

On the upbringing of young children
At school, the correct daily routine was observed, the children received healthy food, spent a significant part of the time in the fresh air, regularly did gymnastics, often to music. Very early, kids began to learn dancing and singing. All these activities contributed to the development of their dexterity, grace, good taste. Thus, physical education was closely combined in the “school for small children with aesthetic education.
Taking care of the mental development of children, during easy conversations they were introduced to the surrounding objects, their properties and practical purpose. R. Owen attached great importance to children's activities, the main type of which he considered games.
Owen considered natural kindness, unfailing patience, the ability to work with children without punishment as the main qualities that educators of young children should possess. R. Owen for the first time in history created educational institutions for young children of workers.
Schools for workers' children
He considered it necessary to equip children with specific knowledge that is accessible to their age and useful in later life. The curriculum of the elementary school in New Lanark included, in addition to the native language and arithmetic, a number of subjects that at that time were not studied at the public school, somehow. elements of geography, botany, mineralogy.
The traditional teaching of religion was replaced by morality lessons conducted by R. Owen himself. Dancing and singing continued in elementary school; military gymnastics was introduced for boys. All training was based on the widespread use of visualization: the school had a large number of different collections and other exhibits; the walls of the great hall were painted with images of animals and plants.
R. Owen believed that it was necessary not only to give children knowledge, but also to develop cognitive abilities. Therefore, he sought to use active teaching methods in the school, contributing to the manifestation of the inquisitiveness of the child's mind and accustoming students to independent thinking.
The regular participation of children in labor activity also gave an undoubted educational effect. Girls were taught to sew, cut, knit, keep the house clean and tidy, they were sent to the public kitchen and dining room, where they had to learn how to cook. The boys mastered the simplest types of handicraft work, learned gardening.
So that all children who have reached the age of five could attend elementary school, R. Owen categorically forbade hiring them at the factory until they were ten years old. From the age of ten, teenagers already working at the factory could continue their studies in evening classes, and until the age of twelve they had a reduced working day.
Pedagogical activity and views of R. Owen during the period of organization of communist colonies
Significant changes that took place in R. Owen's worldview in the second period of his activity also affected his pedagogical views and activities. Owen believed that under communism, thanks to the development of technology and the use of scientific achievements in production, an abundance of all kinds of products would be created; the old division of labor, which turned people into living machines, will be done away with, and "the broad combination of mental and physical strength of each worker" will be fully realized.
Owen sought to put his theoretical propositions into practice in the New Harmony colony. He managed to attract qualified teachers to the schools established there. The colony's schools formed a single system of three levels: a school for young children aged two to five, a day school for children from five to twelve, and a school for teenagers and adults. So, in “New Harmony” children from the age of two did not belong to the family, but to the community. Educators made sure that the kids from a very early age acquired the skills of social behavior and joined in the process of playing activities to the simplest types of domestic work. At the secondary school, students were given a general education with a bias in the natural sciences; it was completely non-religious. Mental education was combined with the daily work of children. The boys mastered turning, carpentry, carpentry, shoemaking and other crafts in the workshops, studied agricultural work in the fields, in the garden and in the garden; girls were mainly engaged in housekeeping: cutting, sewing, cooking, etc. Students of third-stage schools took an active part in the general work of the colony, and in the evenings acquired theoretical knowledge, attended qualified lectures in chemistry, history and other sciences. They were required to undertake agricultural practice.

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Rousseau J.-J. Pedagogical essays: In 2 volumes / Ed. G. N. Dzhibladze; comp. A. N. Dzhurinsky. - M.: Pedagogy, 1981. - 656 p. - (Ped. library). Overhead: APN USSR. © Pedagogy Publishing House, 1981 Approved for publication by the Editorial Board of the Pedagogical Library series of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Reviewer Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Associate Professor F. T. MIKHAILOV. Compiled by A. N. DZHURINSKY From the compiler The first volume presents the largest pedagogical work of Zh-Zh. Rousseau "Emil, or On Education", in which the pedagogical ideas of the great representative of the Enlightenment received the most vivid expression. The full text of the work is published in Russian for the first time. For scientists-teachers, public education workers, as well as for everyone who is interested in the history of pedagogy. Creativity J.-J. Rousseau (1712-1778) - the great French educator, philosopher, writer, teacher - is extremely versatile. A significant place in the legacy of J.-J. Rousseau is occupied with pedagogical problems. This edition presents the works of J.-J. Rousseau devoted to the issues of education. In addition to pedagogical works, the publication presents works and fragments of J.-J. Rousseau of a philosophical, social nature, as well as works of art, since they highlight certain pedagogical issues. The publication includes a number of letters from J.-J. Rousseau. The main pedagogical work of Rousseau - the treatise novel "Emil, or On Education" is published in the 1st volume of this edition. In the same volume, "Emil and Sophie, or the Lonely Ones" is published. Volume 2 includes works on family and social education, the formation of morality, the characteristics of childhood, the child's psyche, and individual didactic issues. The arrangement of works in chronological order helps to trace the evolution of the pedagogical views of J.-J. Rousseau. One of the first pedagogical works - "Treatise on the education of Mr. de Sainte-Marie" was written by J.-J. Rousseau at the very beginning of his career. Pedagogical themes are also reflected in the last essay - "Walks of a Lonely Dreamer", which J.-J. Rousseau didn't have time to finish. The materials of the 2nd volume significantly complement the pedagogical novel by J.-J. Rousseau. The fragments of the treatises "On the Social Contract", "On Political Economy", "Considerations on the Form of Government in Poland" included in the collection shed light on the understanding of J.-J. Rousseau of the social environment as the most important condition for education. An excerpt from the novel "Julia, or the New Eloise" reveals Rousseau's views on family education. The works "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts", "Remarks on the Refutation of Stanislav", "Preface to Narcissus", "Letters on Morality", "On Morals" demonstrate Rousseau's views on the moral foundations of education. In "Confession", "Walks of a lonely dreamer", excerpts from which are presented in the publication, the author continued the study of the characteristics of childhood that he began in "Emil". Materials of the 2nd volume, written before 1762, i.e., before the completion of work on "Emil", often contain in the outline those pedagogical ideas that will then be developed in "Emil" into an integral system. Some of the works of J.-J. Rousseau is published in Russian for the first time. Most of the new translations are based on the four-volume Collected Works of J.-J. Rousseau, published in Paris by the Pleiades Library, as well as according to the twenty-volume Paris edition of Rousseau's correspondence, published in 1924-1934. All footnotes made by Rousseau himself are given on the corresponding pages of the text. The introductory article to the publication was written by G. N. Dzhibladze, Academician of the APS of the USSR and the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR. The second volume contains an article by the French scientist A Vallon *, in which, based on an analysis of the treatise novel "Emile, or On Education", the author reveals the main features of the pedagogy of J. -J. Rousseau. At the end of each volume there are comments on the published works of Rousseau and an index of names prepared by A. N. Dzhurinsky. * A. Vallon(1879-1962) - French psychologist, teacher, public figure, member of the French Communist Party. Known as a co-author of the democratic school reform project (1946), one of the first propagandists of Soviet pedagogy in France.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau and his pedagogical legacy

In Central Europe - highland Switzerland - old Helvetia and its amazingly beautiful Geneva - there is a small island named after the great French educator, philosopher, novelist, author of operas, dramatic works, social and pedagogical treatises.

The island is located in the middle of the wide river Rhone. Once the river threatened him with flooding, but the banks were fortified, and now the island has a small park with miniature stalls, small tables and chairs. When Rousseau lived in Geneva, he was very fond of this island and spent whole days under its tall trees. Now there is a monument to Rousseau on the island: the great writer is sitting in an armchair on a pedestal, holding a pen, writing something.

A lot in Rousseau's life is connected with Geneva - childhood, exaltation and exile, acquaintance with Holbach, Grimm, a heated argument with Voltaire, a letter to d "Alembert ... The addressees of his letters lived here - d" Epinay and d "Udeto. Who knows how many thoughts - philosophical, journalistic, pedagogical - were born in Rousseau here, by Lake Geneva.Geneva is the city of Rousseau, the city of a man who amazed mankind with his masterpieces - "Eloise", "Emile", "Confession", his treatises and the first of them: "Reasoning: Did the revival of the sciences and arts contribute to the improvement of morals?", In which, by answering the question posed, Rousseau challenged the generally accepted opinion.This book brought its 37-year-old author the name and fame of a great philosopher.

But the creations of Rousseau brought him not only fame. He knows exile, long wanderings, bitter disappointments. How many times has he faced complete disaster. A man whose name was surrounded by a halo of glory even during his lifetime, who at one time was the most famous writer in the world, fled from society, retired, remained a lonely dreamer, and his last book (unfinished) is called "Walks of a lonely dreamer." He was on friendly terms with the outstanding people of France and broke with each of them - with Voltaire, Diderot, Holbach, Grimm, d'Alembert.

Rousseau foresaw the French Revolution. He argued that evil would only be destroyed by revolution. And he stipulated that she should be afraid the same way. as well as the evil that must be destroyed by this revolution. He couldn't say more. But it sounded like thunder.

In all his writings, Rousseau was a deeply committed militant thinker. He not only rebelled against the existing system, existing orders and old, outdated concepts, but paved the way for a new, bright, progressive one, built a huge building of humanism, human happiness. He loved man and believed in man.

Rousseau's most famous dictum (in the treatise "On the Social Contract, or the Principles of Political Law"): "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains" - asserted the human right to freedom and equality and at the same time expressed the rejection of the social life order of the existing and existing societies.

The treatise attracted the attention of Karl Marx. While living in Kreuznach, the 25-year-old Marx made extracts from this work. Marx draws attention to the following words of Rousseau: “Social status is a sacred right, which serves as the basis for all other rights. This right, however, is not natural; therefore, it is based on agreements»; “The oldest of all societies, and the only natural one, is family»; “Thus, the family ... the prototype of political societies, the ruler is the likeness of the father, the people are the children” * .

Engels noted the dialectical nature of the judgments of the great enlightener. “... Rousseau sees progress in the emergence of inequality. But this progress was antagonistic, it was at the same time a regression. Analyzing Rousseau’s teaching on equality and inequality, Engels writes: “... Rousseau already has not only an argument that is like two drops of water similar to Marx’s argument in Capital, but we see in Rousseau and in detail a number of the same dialectical turns used by Marx: processes that are antagonistic in nature, containing a contradiction; the transformation of a certain extreme into its opposite, and, finally, as the core of everything, the negation of negation” *** .

This assessment by Engels of the nature of Rousseau's thinking should form the basis for an analysis of the pedagogical ideas of the great enlightener.

Rousseau was both one-sided and contradictory in his judgments, he went to extremes. Enlighteners, encyclopedists - friends of Rousseau - were materialists. Rousseau, on the contrary, opposed materialism from the positions of deism, not noticing, at the same time, that in many questions he stands on the theoretical positions of materialism. This is one example of Rousseau's famous contradictions. Hegel, highly appreciating the talent of Rousseau, emphasized the extremeness and one-sidedness of many of his judgments. Having in mind the principle of "the conscious free will of the individual", Hegel notes that "in Rousseau this opposite principle is brought to an extreme and appears in all its one-sidedness" **** . Analyzing Rousseau's principles about freedom, unfreedom, about the social contract, Hegel remarks: "These principles, put forward in such an abstract way, should be recognized as correct, but ambiguity soon begins" ***** .

And so it is in almost everything: dialectics and one-sidedness, breadth of view and extreme thought, ideas that have a huge prospect of development, and thoughts that have no future. And this is not only in the philosophy, sociology of Rousseau, but also in his pedagogy.

* Rousseau J.-J. Treatises.-M., 1969, p. 471.

** Marx K., Engels F. Works, vol. 20, p. 143.

*** Ibid., p. 144.

**** Hegel. Soch., Vol. X, 1932, p. 222.

***** Ibid., vol. XI, 1935, p. 399.

One of the outstanding thinkers - and not only the 18th century - Rousseau remained a son of his era, but a great son. One can say about the author of "Emil" in the words of Engels: "The great thinkers of the 18th century, like all their predecessors, could not get out of the framework that their own era set for them" * . Rousseau was no exception.

An encyclopedist in the scope of his interests, his talent, Rousseau left his mark in the most diverse branches of human knowledge. He wrote about the theater - "Letter to d" Alembert about spectacles" (1758), about music - "Letter on French Music" (1753), "Letter from an orchestra member of the Royal Academy of Music to his orchestra mates" (1753), wrote "Experience on the origin languages, as well as about melody and musical imitation "(1761). Until now, Rousseau's Musical Dictionary, published in 1767, is a fundamental guide. Rousseau foresaw many questions of the future: the emergence of completely new sciences, new branches of human knowledge.

Rousseau wrote in "Confessions": "Of all my writings, I pondered and most willingly processed the Political Establishments, I was ready to devote my whole life to them."

Here is a list of the main socio-political works of Rousseau, which testifies to the intensity of Rousseau's interest in this issue and the place it occupied in his work: "Discourse on spiders and arts ..." (1750), "Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between People" (1774), "On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law" (1762), "On Political Economy" (1755), "The Judgment of Eternal Peace" (1756), "The Draft Constitution for Corsica" (1765), " Considerations on the form of government in Poland" (1771-1772).

To the question of “did the revival of the sciences and arts contribute to the purification of morals?” Rousseau answered categorically in the negative. He cited innumerable facts from history to prove his accusation of the sciences and arts as "sources of all kinds of evil." A person is good by nature, but society corrupts him, and science and art play an important role in this. “As long as the comforts of life multiply, the arts improve and luxury spreads, true courage turns grey, military prowess disappears; and all this is also the work of the sciences and all these arts that develop in the silence of the classrooms.

In his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, Rousseau strongly opposes the existing system of education. “From the very first years of our life, reckless education refines our mind and perverts our judgments. I see countless establishments everywhere where young people are brought up at great expense to teach them everything but the failure to fulfill their duties, ”he writes ***.

Many years later, very severely evaluating his first treatise as the most "weak" and even "mediocre", Rousseau, however, will put it the first of his three works in which he expresses "great initiatives." Rousseau recognized these three main works of his as "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts", "Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between people" and "Emil, or On Education". “These three works are inseparable from each other; together they form a single whole,” wrote the great educator. These works expressed the main aspects of Rousseau's worldview, the main problems of his work.

* Marx K., Engels F. Works, vol. 20, p. 17.

** Rousseau J.-J. Treatises, p. 23.

*** Ibid., p. 25.

Rousseau connects issues of science, art and morality, social inequality and education. He will develop his system of education in the most detailed way, but he will approach it as a social thinker. “We have physicists, geometers, chemists, astronomers, poets, musicians, artists, but we have no citizens, and if they still remain, then, lost in the wilderness of villages, they perish in poverty and contempt. This is the state to which they have been brought, these are the feelings met on our part by those who give us bread and our children milk, ”Rousseau writes in Discourse on the Sciences and Arts. He asks questions and gives answers himself. "Where do all these abuses come from, if not from the disastrous inequality between people, generated by the exaltation of talents and the humiliation of virtues?"

In 1761, Rousseau's Julia, or New Eloise, was published in Amsterdam - a novel in letters, which became an epoch-making phenomenon in French literature. The novel was a huge success with readers and had a far-reaching impact on literature. It is enough to recall Goethe's "Werther" to see the strength of this influence. Humanism, protection of the human dignity of representatives of the lower classes, criticism of the prevailing social and moral foundations connected the two great authors with a single thread of continuity.

As in most of his works, Rousseau pays attention to issues of pedagogy in The New Eloise. The letters of the characters of the novel to each other are often discussions on pedagogical topics.

We must remember that in the XVII-XVIII centuries. John Locke offers a complete system of education. This system is based on materialism, and it is no coincidence that the philosophical views of the French Enlightenment - Holbach and Helvetius, Diderot and Rousseau were offshoots of Locke's materialism. How much Rousseauism owed its basic principle - sensationalism - to Locke, can be seen in Rousseau's pedagogical doctrine. 70 years before Rousseau, Locke wrote in the pedagogical treatise Thoughts on Education (1693): “Let us give nature the opportunity to form the body as she considers best: left to herself, nature works much better and more accurately than it would work then if followed our instructions." Natural education was supposed to realize the ideal that Locke characterized as follows: “A healthy mind in a healthy body is a brief but complete description of a happy state in this world” **.

Rousseau develops Locke. But in this he is completely original.

Among modern philosophers, Rousseau is one of those who affirmed natural goodness as a starting principle. “Man is by nature good,” wrote Rousseau. And in order to reconcile this principle with the no less obvious truth that people are evil, it was necessary to trace the history of the human heart, to show the origin of all vices. And Rousseau finds the origins of all vices. In the third dialogue of the famous work "Rousseau - judge Jean-Jacques" he formulates: "Nature created a person happy and kind, but society distorts him and makes him unhappy" ****. When educating, one must love the educated person, this is not only the main thing, this is the main thing. And a person should be educated - relying on his own nature.

As you know, Emil - the hero of the novel of the same name - Rousseau's pedagogical treatise - was brought up in the bosom of nature, outside the city and outside society. Education in the bosom of nature, far from the corrupting influence of urban civilization, is most conducive to the development of natural aspirations and natural feelings. Rousseau considered man as an object controlled by the laws of nature and only on this path can achieve everything.

* Locke D. Ped. op. M., 1939, p. 77.

** Ibid., p. 72.

*** Letter from Rousseau to F. Kramer dated October 13, 1764. Cited. by the book: Jean-Jacques Rousseau on Art. M., 1959. from. 108.

**** Ibid., p. 111.

That exaltation of nature and its role in human life, which is characteristic of Rousseau and Rousseauism, largely determined the artistic merits of his novel-treatise and novel in letters. In artistic prose, Rousseau created magnificent pictures of nature, showing the charm and beauty of the mountains and valleys of old Helvetia. Consider how he describes the dazzling landscape of the Valais mountains or the unique beauty of Lake Geneva. It was the first discovery in European prose. Rousseau, like no one, felt the beauty of nature and understood its great importance in shaping the world of people, in educating them in the spirit of humanism, harmony, integrity.

Rousseau believed that bad, incorrect upbringing breaks the inner world of the child, destroys the good qualities inherent in him by nature. The authoritarian upbringing introduced by the Jesuits leads to such a distortion of the nature of the child, the entire internal logic of which boiled down to the fact that the educator and the educated person acted in relation to each other as a dictator and a slave. The student had to recognize the authority of the teacher unquestioningly and accept it as a dogma, the "truth" of which does not need proof. Such a system of education could not create people who think freely, act consciously.

The treatise novel "Emil, or On Education" was Rousseau's main pedagogical work, entirely devoted to the problems of human education. There are two main characters in it - Emil (from birth to 25 years old) and his tutor, who spent almost all these 25 years next to Emil. To express his pedagogical ideas, Rousseau created in his novel a situation where the educator begins to educate a child left an orphan from infancy, and takes on all the duties and rights of parents. And Emil is completely the fruit of many years of efforts of his tutor.

A great champion of natural, natural education, Rousseau begins the first book of "Emil" with the thesis: "Everything comes out good from the hands of the Creator, everything degenerates in the hands of man." It is easy for us to understand the paradoxical nature of this thought. However, it is impossible not to see here Rousseau's resolute rejection of the existing order of things.

Rousseau outlines three types of education and three types of teachers: Nature, People, Objects. All of them participate in the upbringing of a person: nature internally develops our inclinations and organs, people help to use this development, objects act on us and give us experience. Natural education does not depend on us, it acts independently. Subject education partly depends on us.

Education is a great thing, and it can create a free and happy person. The natural man - Rousseau's ideal - is harmonious and whole, the qualities of a citizen, a patriot of his homeland, are highly developed in him. He is absolutely free from selfishness. As an example of such a person, Rousseau gives the name of the Lacedaemonian Pedaret, who wished to become a member of the council of three hundred and, when this was refused, was delighted that there were three hundred better people in Sparta than he was.

Another historical example. The Lacedaemonian had five sons who went to war. She was waiting for information about the course of hostilities, and when it is reported that all five of her sons were killed, she indignantly says to the messenger slave: “Dishonorable slave, did I ask about this ?!” “We won,” he said, and the Lacedaemonian mother runs to the temple to give thanks to God.

The role of the educator for Rousseau is to educate children and give them one and only trade - life. According to Emil's teacher, neither a judicial official, nor a military man, nor a priest will come out of his hands - first of all, it will be a person who, if necessary, can be both.

Education is such a huge and responsible matter that one person should educate only one person. Emil's tutor educates only Emil, at the same time being his teacher. Educator and teacher are one and the same for Rousseau. He does not separate education and upbringing, because he believes that the child needs to be taught only one and only science - the science of the duties of a person. And the main thing is not teaching, but leadership, not a teacher, but a leader whose task is not to give laws to children, but to teach them to find these laws themselves. Self-education is the core. Rousseau argues that the poor, who work all the time, do not need education, for they educate themselves. Only the rich need education. The poor themselves can become human beings, for they work, and work is their educator.

Rousseau believes that for a child, knowledge of good and evil, an understanding of the mission of man in society are not needed. He must remain a child. A child has his own views, his own consciousness, his own feelings, and one cannot impose on him the views and feelings of an adult. This is as much nonsense as requiring a 10-year-old child to be five feet tall and have the ability to judge. At this age, one should not develop the ability of judgment in a child. The author of "Emil" does not agree with John Locke, who took a completely opposite position.

Emil's educator in his activities uses the creative nature of the child, his ability to imitate, the desire to actively express himself in business; when a child sees how people work in the garden, sow, grow and harvest, he will also have a desire to do what he sees. And here the educator teaches his pupil the lessons of morality and the knowledge of good and evil, without giving him the concepts themselves, without discussing these issues with him. Introduces the child to the norms of morality not through logical concepts, but through experience.

Emil is brought up outside the environment of his peers and outside any environment at all. Everything and everyone is replaced by an educator for him.

Rousseau releases the children from all assignments and robs them of the book - the great "tool of misfortune", as he believes. Even at the age of 12, Emil will not know what a book is.

Rejecting all violence in raising a child, Rousseau believes that the only effective method of teaching is the child's own desire to learn. The task of the educator is to give him this desire. Immediate interest is what makes any learning successful. This is the biggest and only driving force. And you need to put the child in a situation where he will have a need and hence the desire to learn something, for example, reading.

Teaching his pupil astronomy, geography, the educator does not present ready-made knowledge, but forces him to acquire them himself in the process of activity. Rousseau believes that it is necessary to speak with children in the language of action, resorting to verbal learning only where action is impossible. In order to convey to Emil the knowledge of the cardinal points, the teacher makes him get lost in the forest and be forced to navigate. Emil's knowledge, revealed by himself, delights him.

Rousseau shows amazing ingenuity in the development of specific techniques and methods of education.

In his educational principles, Rousseau strongly opposes idleness, declaring that “work ... is an inevitable duty of a person in a social state. Every idle citizen - rich or poor, powerful or weak - is a parasite."

Among all types of labor, Rousseau prefers manual labor, the labor of an artisan, who, according to him, occupies the most independent position in society. Rousseau demands from a person not talent, but knowledge of some kind of craft, real, genuine, craft, even purely mechanical art, where the hands work more than the head, and which does not bring wealth, but with the help of which one can "tolerate the lack of wealth." And it is no coincidence that the great educator teaches Emil carpentry.

Rousseau lists the types of labor according to the degree of importance he himself has established: in the first place he puts agriculture, an iota of blacksmithing, carpentry, etc. Here he acts as the son of his time. Everything acquired, says Rousseau, can be lost - only one work gives us happiness and justification of life. If a person uses the ability of his hands, all difficulties disappear for him. If a person masters a craft, he is independent, he does not need to humiliate himself and servility. Therefore, Rousseau makes his Emile learn some trade.

When Emile turned 15, Rousseau proudly declares that his Emile is hardworking, temperate, has a strong character, a free mind, is physically healthy, and I have a free heart. Now it is time for the development of the senses, the initial sensory urges. It is important that the child does not have a false idea of ​​​​happiness. Therefore, one should not show him riches, fascinating spectacles, acquaint him with the life of the world. All this must be abandoned until the young man is able to correctly assess the merits and demerits of society and people.

A person is born naked and poor, in life he will definitely experience sorrow, illness, misfortune. And he will die. At the age of 16, a person already knows what torment is, for he himself suffered, but he does not yet know that others are tormented. It is necessary to educate in a person feelings of humanity, kindness, selflessness and not allow such feelings as envy, greed, hatred, cruel passions in the heart of the pupil, Rousseau formulates three conditions, the observance of which gives a person happiness and elevates him as a rational being: sympathy for another, help to others, high sensitivity in empathy.

Attaching great importance to proper upbringing, Rousseau says that at the age of six, Emil was almost no different from other children, because these latter had not yet been disfigured by incorrect upbringing, but after Emil’s upbringing began (using the methods of the author of the ), he began to stand out sharply among his peers, because they, these peers, were already disfigured by poor education. When should education begin?

Rousseau answered this question back in The New Eloise: “Education should begin from the day a child is born,” says Saint-Preux.

Rousseau opposes Locke, who proposes the study of the soul, and then the body. Rousseau objects: first you need to study the body, and then the soul.

Rousseau's demand noticeably approaches the demand of Jan Amos Comenius, for even the great Czech pedagogue argued that we must begin the study of the external world with the study of objects, and not concepts *.

* Cm.: Jibladze G. Philosophy of Comenius. Ed. Tbilisi University, 1973, p. 128-154.

Rousseau is a deist, so his struggle against certain materialistic positions and sometimes harsh accusations against the materialism of the 18th century should be absolutely understandable for us. Together with tol, he uncompromisingly criticized the official religion, but also from the standpoint of deism. Rousseau considered the best faith to be "natural religion", which is characterized by simplicity and clarity, while the official religion is based on the sacraments and cult. Rousseau stands for religious education. For him, the only book that people are required to know and Emil must study is the book of nature, for it teaches how to serve the creator and how to bow before him.

The basis of Rousseau's pedagogical concept is age-based pedagogy. Rousseau looked at the child from the point of view of his age identity. The child must be treated “as befits his age,” wrote Rousseau. In the whole complex of education, it is necessary to observe the child, to study his world. No one before Rousseau cared so much about the age principle in pedagogy as he does. This principle is the main one in the construction of the novel "Emil", in which the division into five books is determined by the five age periods of childhood identified by Rousseau.

In accordance with the age of the child, the goals, objectives and means of education change. Solving the problems of education requires gradualness, they consistently confront the educator and cannot be solved earlier or later than the time that is determined by him by the age characteristics of the developing organism of a growing person. There is a certain age at which sciences should be taught. And not earlier than a certain age should take place the development of social foundations and norms. It is possible to instill in a child the foundations of social behavior ahead of time, when he is not yet able to understand them, and, becoming an adult, he will follow them all his life, but he will never understand what he is doing. Bring me a 12-year-old boy, says Rousseau, who knows nothing, and I undertake to return him to you when he is 15 years old, with the same knowledge as his peers, who have been studying since childhood, with the difference that they have there will be titles only in memory, and with him - in reasoning. Give society a 20-year-old man; in a year, under good guidance, he will be more intelligent and well-mannered than the one who was brought up from childhood. And this is because the pupil of Rousseau will already have the ability to realize the foundations of the knowledge presented to him and the morality brought up in him.

Day after day, for more than two decades, Emil's upbringing has been going on, strictly taking into account the age stages of his development. Rousseau created his own scale of stages of age development: from birth to 2 years; from 2 to 12 years; from 12 to 15 years; from 15 to 22, from 22 to 24.

Finishing the fourth book of the novel, Rousseau warns that the last moment has come when Emile must choose a girlfriend of life, and if he makes a mistake, it will be too late to correct her. The entire fifth and last book of "Emil" is devoted to this problem, and we have no right to ignore Rousseau's theory of love, marriage, citizenship of newlyweds.

Emile is already 22 years old, and Rousseau considers this age the last act of youth. The outcome of this act should be love and marriage. In the novel, the third main character appears - Emil's future girlfriend Sophie, who embodies the ideal type of a young woman, like Emil - a young man.

Locke believes that when the period of marriage comes, the educator has nothing to do, he should retire. Rousseau strongly disagrees with this and declares that he "does not at all intend to follow Locke's advice in the present case." Emil's friend "Sophie must be a woman in the same way that Emil is a man, that is, she must have all the qualities inherent in human nature and her sex in order to fulfill her purpose in the field of physical and moral." From here begins a detailed, complex, interesting theory of similarities and differences between a woman and a man. In human qualities, a woman is equal to a man - this is an axiom for Rousseau. Even in the appearance of a woman and a man, he does not see a significant difference. However, Rousseau comes to the conclusion that "in the field of civil relations, it is in no way possible to appoint representatives of both sexes to the same posts, to the same jobs, as a result of which the most unbearable abuses inevitably arise." A woman brings up children - is this a small position? The child grows up in a family and in a large homeland. It is impossible to put an equal sign between them, but it is also impossible to separate them from each other. The family is a small cell, the foundation of the motherland, the state; she serves her gigantic organism. The family should proceed from the interests of the motherland, the state, and these interests should also be manifested in the upbringing of the child. “Isn’t love,” writes Rousseau, “what we have for our loved ones, not a pledge of love for our fatherland? Doesn't the family, the whole small homeland, inspire us with affection for the great homeland? Aren't a good son, a good husband, a good father also good citizens? On the question of the position of women in society, Rousseau remains the son of his age. "Following the promptings of nature, man and woman should act in harmony, but should not do the same thing." A woman and a man should be brought up by her in the same way and by different methods.

Rousseau believes that "both sexes have the same abilities", but not equally; to develop masculine qualities in a woman, neglecting her inherent qualities, means to act clearly to her detriment.

In each of the five books of Emil, Rousseau gives a detailed age profile of Emil. He also characterizes Sophie in the same detail. She has excellent inclinations: the heart is the most sensitive, the mind is insightful, her character is light, her appearance is ordinary, but pleasant.

Sophie appears in Emil's life quite timely, just when the hero has approached that age limit, when, according to the conditions of the age periodization created by Rousseau, he is supposed to enter the time of love in happiness. But the teacher, as we know, does not consider it possible to leave Emil to himself. He does not consider his upbringing completed, and his work done. When Emil is ready to marry his beloved, the teacher offers him to go abroad for two years, and only after he learns about the life of peoples, states, people, can he get married.

The mentor, who returned from a two-year journey, gives his consent to marriage and offers to settle not in the city, but in the countryside. “This is the original way of life of a person,” says Rousseau, “the most peaceful, most natural existence, which is most amiable to a person with an unperverted heart.”

The utopian nature of this conclusion is obvious. But in him is also his democratic nature, the rejection of dogmatic, aristocratic education.

Releasing his heroes to life, Rousseau will say: “I am touched by the thought of how many good deeds Emil and Sophie can do while staying in their modest refuge, how they will revive the village and breathe new strength into the ill-fated villager.”

Completing his grandiose creation, his carefully designed system of education. Rousseau will put into the mouth of Emil the words addressed to his teacher: “... I need you more than ever. You have fulfilled your duties: teach me how to imitate you, and you rest - it's time!

With these words “Emil” ends, and with these words the author reinforces the foundations of his pedagogical system. One educator forms one citizen, but from this grows an endless chain of education as a process that goes from generation to generation.

But how did the life of Emil and Sophie turn out, brought up and united in the same family according to the pedagogical doctrine of Rousseau? Have they achieved the complete happiness that they themselves thought and for which their mentor prepared?

Rousseau intended to write a continuation of "Emile" in several books, but left us only two letters from Emile to his tutor; the second one is unfinished.

The continuation of the pedagogical novel was to be called "Emil and Sophie, or the Lonely". From Emil's two letters to his mentor, we learn about the tragic fate of Emil and Sophie. The idyll that ends "Emil" is destroyed.

What happened, what caused the tragedy? Or did the educational system not justify itself in a collision with life? However, Emil writes to his mentor: “Never have I been so keenly aware of the full value of your instructions as in those days when the blows of cruel fate fell upon me, stealing everything from me, except for my “I”. I'm lonely, I've lost everything; but remained true to himself, and despair did not cast me into dust.

The lives of the heroes were spoiled by the corrupting influence of the big city. Once in Paris, Emile and Sophie have changed dramatically, having lost all their dignity. Social life corrupted Sophie and turned Emil into a man no longer able to love his wife. They break up.

The novel-tractate "Emil" made a breach in traditional pedagogy. Rousseau, brilliantly generalizing the pedagogical judgments of his predecessors and contemporaries, created a concept that expressed new trends and aspirations.

The novel should be considered primarily as a presentation of Rousseau's views on the main points of the formation of man. Rousseau believed that every newborn human being is beautiful and gifted, which should be done through education so that such natural perfection not only does not fade, but also sparkles with new colors. Rousseau saw in the child a being of a special bodily and spiritual organization, the formation and development of which should take into account his age and interests, organize incentive conditions for actions and judgments in such a way as to ensure the transition from a natural, natural state to a social state. Rousseau believed that conflicting aspirations (self-love and love for neighbors) are inherent in a person from birth, the harmony of which brings happiness and freedom to him and society when he does not go beyond the boundaries outlined by nature. The condition for the effectiveness of such harmony and coordination was to be education.

Emil is the perfect character. He is devoid of shortcomings, protected from the pernicious influences of society by natural health. There could not be a real prototype of such a hero, I Rousseau created him with the power of my imagination. Emil, who is alien to the cultural traditions of the outgoing society, who relies on his own common sense, actually turns out to be a piece of a utopian society based on reasonable principles. Emil is non-social, he is a being without particulars, capable of naturally entering the coming society, a society of happiness and freedom. Rousseau believed in such a perspective of humanity, and his educational program was commensurate with such a perspective.

Rousseau strongly rejected the existing system of education.

"Emil" - the main pedagogical work of Rousseau. But the theme of human education is also present in his other works, expanding our understanding of the pedagogical views of the great educator.

Rousseau's views on goals, objectives, and methods of education played a major role in the development of pedagogy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Criticism of the estate-feudal system of education, which suppressed the personality of the child, the spirit of humanism and democracy, hostility to dogmatism and scholasticism, the demand for the activation of education, its connection with life, with the personal experience of the child, the call for parents to become active educators of their children, for serious labor education, which constituted valuable aspects of Rousseau's pedagogical creativity, opened the way for the development of advanced theory and practice of education.

The name of Jean-Jacques Rousseau already at the beginning of the second half of the XVIII century. became known in Russia. Sumarokov recognized the enormous talent of Rousseau. Radishchev quoted The Social Contract. “In the democratic program, Russo Radishchev was attracted by the merciless denial of the entire feudal order and the idea of ​​direct rule of the people, the idea of ​​the people “in its collective face” as the source and bearer of sovereignty. These ideas have forever entered the political consciousness of Radishchev,” writes Yu. Lotman *.

The Russian historian and writer Karamzin, who personally knew Immanuel Kant and Wolfgang Goethe, admired the genius of the great Frenchman, believed that Rousseau foresaw the Great French Revolution. "Russo! Russo! Your memory is now kind to people; you are dead, but your spirit lives in "Emil", but your heart lives in "Eloise".

Interest in Rousseau in Russia never faded. Leo Tolstoy at the end of his life admitted that he was under the strong influence of Rousseau. “I read all of Rousseau, yes, all twenty volumes, including the Musical Dictionary,” said Tolstoy. “I not only admired him; I idolized him: at the age of fifteen I wore a medallion with his portrait as an icon on my chest. For Tolstoy, as he himself wrote, "Rousseau and the Gospel are the two most powerful and beneficial influences" on his life. Rousseau doesn't age. More recently, I had to re-read some of his works, and I experienced the same feeling of upliftment and admiration that I experienced when reading him in early youth.

Rousseau's enormous prestige in Russia is well known. Rousseau's creations over the last more than 200 years have interested everyone who thought. Even his mistakes and paradoxes met with interest and understanding. They might not like him, but they considered him a mentor. He conquered with his humanism, democracy, philanthropy. “Sparks of passionate philanthropy sparkle in his very delusions,” wrote Karamzin *****.

Chernyshevsky called Rousseau a genius, spoke of his tender love for people and wrote that Rousseau "did not give anything but a long-standing genius ... to the press" ****** .

* Lotman Yu. M. Rousseau and Russian culture of the 18th - early 19th centuries. - In the book: Rousseau J.-J. Treatises, p. 567.

**Cit. on: Rousseau J.-J. Treatises, p.582.

*** Ibid., p. 555-556.

**** Ibid., p. 601.

***** Ibid. from. 582.

****** Ibid., p. 599.

The works of Rousseau aroused great interest among the teachers of Russia. K. D. Ushinsky paid close attention to the pedagogy of Rousseau, “a great connoisseur of human passions”. Marxist teachers began a qualitatively new stage in the study of Rousseau's pedagogical heritage. N. K. Krupskaya in her work "People's Education and Democracy" paid special attention to Rousseau's views on labor education. Soviet pedagogical science develops and creatively uses the progressive ideas of the great teacher.

For modern mankind, Rousseau is history, but eternally living history. He is addressed as the immortal inspirer of progress, freedom, happiness, humanism.

G. N. Dzhibladze

1. "The most famous writer of France." 2. Life and pedagogical path. 3. Pedagogical views of Rousseau

1. "FRANCE'S MOST FAMOUS WRITER"

“Not a single name was already surrounded in the 18th century. such a halo of glory as the name of Rousseau. He was the most famous writer of France, Europe, the world. Everything that came from his pen was immediately published and republished, translated into all major languages, ”wrote the famous Russian historian A.Z. Manfred.

But it is also difficult to name another person who, not only during his lifetime, but even centuries later, would continue to cause such fierce disputes. He was declared a dangerous troublemaker, a preacher of freedom, a rebel, the founder of all revolutionary ferment, the subverter of the foundations of society, and so on. etc. And at the same time a great humanist, a great teacher, a titan of thought.

Rousseau lived in France in an era when the decline of royal power was coming, but the people still lived in faith in a kind and just king. The general discontent of the artisans and the poor of the cities grew; crowds of them came out with menacing exclamations into the city squares. It was the time on the eve of the revolution, caused by certain objective reasons.

Peasantry in the 18th century made up the majority of the population of France, but it was crushed by huge taxes. The country actively developed manufactories, industry with a predominance of manual labor. France was constantly at war with other states, seeking to achieve hegemony. Spending on the maintenance of royal power increased: a solemn court ceremonial, a huge retinue, endless festivities, the splendor of the royal court, the exaltation of the person of the king - all this was a symbol of the triumph of absolutism. The people groaned from the arbitrariness of the masters, unbearable requisitions and duties, from the iniquities of royal officials: neither justice nor truth could be achieved in the courts. Class privileges were huge. All this caused general discontent.

Second half of the 18th century took place in the struggle against absolutism. The masses of the people, the parliaments of the cities, part of the aristocracy are demanding the restriction of royal power.

School work in the 18th and even at the beginning of the 19th century retained the features of the Middle Ages, not only in France. In European countries, schools were miserable and far from their purpose. Schools for the people usually did not have special buildings, but were placed at the home of a teacher or in the workshop of an artisan who combined teaching and craft. The teachers were a village watchman, a bricklayer, a turner, a shoemaker, who needed additional earnings. When choosing a teacher from such candidates, preference was given to the one who had a suitable room for the school. Such a teacher did not need special knowledge, since teaching was limited to the acquisition by the student of the skills of reading and memorizing the texts of the catechism.

Famous teacher of the XIX century. A. Diesterweg described the methods of school education in this way. The students approached the teacher one by one, he pointed out the letter and called it, the student repeated the name, etc., so he gradually learned to read over several years. The children lingered over the texts from the Holy Scripture after the teacher. It was purely mechanical learning. They also taught singing: the teacher sang the psalms several times, then the children repeated them. Dogmatic methods prevailed in school education.

Hence - the ignorance of the broadest masses of the people, even ordinary illiteracy was not uncommon. They simply did not think about education in schools. All this caused a sharp criticism of the state of education on the part of public figures, who were aware of the special role of education in the fate of the whole society.

The whole 18th century passed in Europe under the sign of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Enlightenment is a broad ideological trend that originated in France, reflecting the interests of the broad masses. Enlightenment figures considered education as an instrument for improving society.

In the ranks of this trend there was a brilliant galaxy of outstanding thinkers, writers, and scientists. In the XVIII century. many dictionaries have appeared in various branches of science "among them" Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts "by D. Diderot. For the first time, such words as deputy, despotism, constitution, privilege, etc. were explained in it. Writers, officials, and not just aristocrats, began to collect libraries, books, even coachmen and maids read details. The books were printed in Holland and Switzerland and secretly transported to France. Prohibited literature was burned by the authorities, but it continued to be imported and distributed in France, which had a significant impact on the approach of the revolution. The largest representatives of the French Enlightenment: Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Helvetia, Diderot. They adopted some of Locke's ideas and gave them their own interpretation and further development. Enlighteners fought for the establishment of a "kingdom of reason" based on "natural equality", for political freedom. A great place in achieving these goals, establishing a new social order was assigned to the dissemination of knowledge. They dreamed of creating such an ideal society in which there would be no vices, oppression and violence, they sharply criticized the existing form of government, the church, and morality. This criticism turned the enlighteners into the ideologists of the French revolution of the end of the 18th century, although they did not call for it. The Enlightenment leaders considered education and enlightenment to be a means of establishing a just order and transforming society.

Rousseau was the brightest and most brilliant writer and publicist in the remarkable constellation of enlighteners.

This individualist, who shunned people, became after his death a teacher of the insurgent masses, their ideologist. The thoughts and precepts of Rousseau were taken to the service of both the revolutionary leaders and their opponents.

2. LIFE AND PEDAGOGICAL PATH

Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in 1712. in Geneva (Switzerland) in a French family. He came from the lower classes, his ancestors were peasants and artisans, and his father was a watchmaker. Having lost his mother early, Jean Jacques grew up like a round, orphan, since his father did little to him. Left to himself, he became interested in reading, "absorbing" book after book.

At the age of 13, Rousseau was sent to learn the trade: at first he was a clerk's apprentice, but, being incapable of this business, he became an apprentice in the engraver's workshop, where he also stayed for a short time. They shouted at him there, did not skimp on cuffs on the back of the head. One day he firmly decided to leave the workshop forever.

From 1728 a long period of wandering begins; on foot, with a staff in his hands, along country roads, young Rousseau traveled around Switzerland, France, and Italy. These travels gave him a lot, he knew life, although he wandered without a specific goal. He was full of trust in people, smiling, singing, laughing and unusually quickly win over people. He was also helped by an amazing gift of eloquence. During these years, he tried different activities.

This ten-year school of wandering determined a lot in his fate. He knew life not from books, which he read a lot before and after his travels, he knew real life. In the famous states, Rousseau saw low, rooted huts, where he often found shelter, exhausted peasants, stunted crops, poverty and wretchedness, but also saw magnificent palaces of noble nobles, which he bypassed.

Peasant need, national disasters, class inequality, i.e. life itself; seen by him, became the first source of his socio-political ideas.

An important role in his life was played by a meeting with an educated, free-thinking abbess of the monastery in Annecy, who enjoyed the special patronage of the pope and helped Rousseau for many years. She tried to convert Rousseau to Catholicism, placed him in a Catholic school for the training of missionaries, but the attempt was not successful. He remained indifferent to religion. Then, feeling his giftedness, she insisted on studying at a music school; here he achieved great success and began to compose music himself.

But the most important thing in these years is his studies under the guidance of his patroness. For 10 years, he comprehended everything that he lacked, was engaged in self-education. Natural and social sciences, literature, art - everything that was created most significant in them was studied by Rousseau in those years. It was a systematic education, as a result of which Rousseau subsequently amazed his interlocutors with his erudition. He studied astronomy, chemistry, botany, physics, even conducted experiments, became interested in philosophy, but his favorite subjects were history and geography. So, gradually Jean-Jacques Rousseau turned into one of the most well-read and educated people of his time, formed as an original and deep thinker. At the same time, he retained the simplicity and expressiveness of words, clarity in the expression of thought. Self-education is the second university of J.J. Rousseau (the first is life itself).

At the end of the 30s. Rousseau served in Lyon as a home tutor to the two sons of a local judge. This experience served as the basis for the writing of the treatise "The project of education de Sainte-Marie", where he outlined his understanding of the tasks and content of education.

In 1742, Rousseau appears in Paris, where, thanks to letters of recommendation, he ended up in fashionable salons, where he enters with a secret prejudice, disgust for wealth and distrust of dazzling ladies and gentlemen. Rousseau watched, listened, observed. And gradually he realized how fair his guesses were: he saw in the visitors of the salons lies and hypocrisy, secret and cold calculation, ruthlessness towards his competitors. The aversion to wealth did not decrease, but increased and sharpened. The experience of communicating with the elite of the Parisian world led him to a critical assessment of contemporary society. He approached those ideas about the origin of inequality, which later brought him great fame.

The ladies who patronize Rousseau procured him a post at the French embassy in Venice. But his career failed, Rousseau, who was distinguished by obstinacy from childhood, did not get along with his superiors and, slamming the door, returned to Paris.

Rousseau did not belong to the “career people” at all, he did not look for an easy “way up”, but, on the contrary, rejected it. In the high society of Paris, Rousseau was a huge success, everyone was looking for acquaintances with him. But he did not turn this fame into money, estates, titles, he did not need fame. “I was sick of the smoke of literary fame,” he said at the end of his life.

The small inheritance that Rousseau left after his father's death allowed him to live without thinking about earning. And he decides to devote himself to music, especially since in Paris, thanks to his musical and literary works, he gained a reputation as a musician and gifted composer.

In the 40s. Rousseau writes compositions on music theory, creates musical and poetic works; but at this time he is especially keenly aware of the discord with Parisian society.

In his busy and difficult life, Rousseau finds an outlet in the face of a young seamstress Teresa Aevasser, who became his girlfriend, and then his wife for life. “Her mind remained the same as nature created it; education, culture did not stick to her mind, ”he writes in his Confession. But her meekness, defenselessness, gullibility conquered him and made him happy. Apparently, with this simple girl, he felt some kind of relationship.

Rousseau made friends with young people who were critical of the existing order; among them was Denis Diderot, whose fate was somewhat similar to his own.

Diderot and his friends decided to publish the Encyclopedia of Sciences and Crafts. The authors were writers, united by anti-feudal ideas and ideas of enlightenment. Rousseau also became one of the encyclopedists who entered into battle with the old world. The volumes of the "Encyclopedia" expressed a new ideology, opposed to the existing order in society, its morals and dogmas. It played an enormous role in the ideological preparation of the French Revolution. Rousseau, anticipating the revolution, wrote that it would destroy evil, but at the same time it should be feared in the same way as the existence of evil.

At the end of the 40s. Rousseau had already arrived at the ideas expressed in his treatise Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750), which brought him wide fame. One day, on his way to Diderot's place of detention near Paris and leafing through a magazine, he read an announcement from the Dijon Academy about a competition on a theme. "Did the revival of the sciences and arts contribute to the purification of morals?". On the same day he began to write a treatise - he was so interested in the topic. The Dijon Academy awarded Rousseau's composition the first prize. The published treatise aroused heated controversy. Articles about Rousseau's work were later published in two thick volumes.

The author of the treatise answers the negative question about the positive influence of the sciences and arts on the mores of society. He writes that humanity has suffered irreparable damage by moving away from its "natural state". But at the same time, he did not at all call for the destruction of civilization - "such a conclusion is quite in the spirit of my opponents." He sees the progress of mankind in education, which will take place in harmony with the natural essence of the child.

Another work of Rousseau (by the way, his favorite) - the novel "New Eloise", written in 1758, and published in 1761, was an extraordinary success, for 40 years it was published 70 times, including on

Russian. Not a single work of art of the 18th century. not pol-b yawned such popularity. This is a sentimental story about medieval lovers who are forced to live apart, as love turns out to be powerless in the face of social prejudices: the hero of the novel “does not give enough birth compared to his beloved - the daughter of a baron. The novel is written in the form of letters from the characters to each other.

In their letters, the heroes discuss religious, aesthetic, pedagogical topics. The New Eloise proved to be the forerunner of the pedagogical novel.

In 1753, Rousseau began work on the novel "Emile, or On Education", publishing it in 1762 in Paris and Amsterdam. The publication of the novel caused a whole storm of anger and fury of the authorities and the church. Immediately upon publication, the novel was banned by the church, 10 days after publication, the entire circulation in Paris was confiscated and burned publicly.

Legal proceedings were brought against the author by the church. He was forced to hide and flee to a small village near Bern (Switzerland), but soon the authorities of Geneva and Bern refused him asylum, then he found shelter in a small town. “... They can take my life, but not my freedom,” Rousseau wrote.

The Amsterdam edition was also burned, and then the books were "executed" in Geneva. "Emil" was included in the list of banned books, and Rousseau was anathematized by the pope.

The Russian Empress Catherine II, after reading "Emil", expressed her opinion: "... I do not like Emil's education ..." - and the import of the novel into Russia was prohibited.

The rejection by the authorities of Rousseau is understandable - "Emil" contained direct attacks on the aristocracy and the church, and they took up arms against him. He thus entered into conflict with society, which had previously recognized him.

Did not understand the reasoning of Rousseau and some of his recent friends, such as Helvetius, Voltaire.

But many outstanding thinkers of Europe welcomed Rousseau, for example, the famous philosophers Kant, Hume. After all, the novel reflected the author's worldview, original and constructive.

It is indisputable that thanks to "Emil" in Europe there was a huge interest in the problem of education, in France the number of pedagogical works increased sharply. Under the impression of reading "Emil", ardent supporters of the ideas of Rousseau appeared, who wanted to translate them into practice.

And in 1767 he was again in France, but he lives under a false name. In the last years of his life, he wrote several more works: "Confession" - his biography and philosophical understanding of life, "Walks of a lonely dreamer", "Discourse on the management of Poland", where he again returns to questions of education.

Jean Jacques Rousseau died in 1778.

RUSSO'S PEDAGOGICAL VIEWS

The treatise novel "Emil, or On Education" is the main pedagogical work of Rousseau, it is entirely devoted to the presentation of his views on education; in it, reasonable education is understood by Rousseau as a way of social reorganization. There are two characters in the novel - Emil (from birth to 25 years old) and the educator who has spent all these years with him, acting as parents. Emil is brought up far from a society that corrupts people, outside the social environment, in the bosom of nature.

What is "education"? In modern Rousseau society, there was an understanding of education as the remaking of a child by adults according to an established pattern with the help of literature, religion, etc. and turning him, through training, into the kind of person who is needed for the appropriate "place" in society. Rousseau contrasted such education with a personality brought up by the means of nature, with its own natural interests, guided in life by its own natural abilities. If the dominant upbringing sought to make a person well-trained and comprehended all the subtleties of etiquette, then for Rousseau an educated person is a deeply human person who has achieved the development of his abilities and talents. *

“Everything comes out good from the hands of the Creator, everything degenerates in the hands of man. He forces one soil to nourish the plants grown on another, one tree to bear fruit characteristic of another. He mixes and confuses climates, elements, seasons. He disfigures his dog, his horse, his slave. He turns everything upside down, distorts everything, loves the ugly, the monstrous. He does not want to see anything as nature has created - not excluding man: and he needs to train a man, like a horse for an arena, he needs to remake in his own way, as he uprooted a tree in his garden.

So the existing upbringing, breaking the child, spoils it. And all this is because a person is being prepared for “his place” in society in accordance with the position of his parents: to be a military man, a lawyer, to serve the church.

Such upbringing is harmful to the pupil. Rousseau calls for another: “To live is the craft that I want to teach him. Coming out of my hands, he will not be ... neither a judge, nor a soldier, nor a priest: he will be first of all a man; everything that a person should be, he will be able to be, in case of need, as well as anyone else, and no matter how fate moves him from place to place, he will always be in his place. It is necessary to teach the child to endure the blows of fate, to despise wealth and poverty, to live in any conditions. But “to live does not mean to breathe: it means to act ... to use our organs, feelings, abilities, all parts of our being ... Not the person who lived the most who can count more years, but the one who most felt life.

So, the goal of education is to make the pupil a person, to bring up in him, first of all, the traits that any person needs.

Who is the educator? According to Rousseau, there are three sources of education: nature, things, people.

Education is given to us either by nature, or people, or things, but, according to Rousseau, the result is achieved in education when they do not contradict each other.

Nature as a source of education is the internal development of a person's abilities and senses. Nature in this context is the child's natural data that he has from birth. This development is little influenced by the educator, but the child should be educated according to his nature.

From things, i.e. from the outside world, the child receives a lot. The child is born "sensually receptive" and receives various impressions from the environment; as he grows, more and more knowledge accumulates, it expands and strengthens. At the same time, abilities develop. Here the role of the educator is also limited.

Basic education depends on people: parents, educators, teachers. They have to make sure that the nature of man manifests itself most fully. It is up to the educator to harmonize the action of these factors.

Rousseau's ideal is a person in his natural state, not spoiled by society and upbringing. “If you want him to keep his original look, take care of this look from the very moment the child enters the world ... without this you will never succeed”2. In order for the child to retain his natural state, natural education is necessary.

Rousseau considers the desire to eradicate the child's instinctive tendencies to be a great delusion of educators. The existing system of education spoils the perfect nature of the child. Man is good by nature, but society corrupts and corrupts him. “Nature created man happy and kind, but society distorts him and makes him unhappy,” says Rousseau.

The condition for the preservation of the state of nature is freedom, it is incompatible with the tyranny of the educator. Emil is brought up in such a way that he does not feel the oppression of the educator. He does what he pleases. His training is that he asks more than he answers, his tutor answers more than he asks. But Emil asks what the teacher wants from him. Rousseau writes that let the pupil consider himself the master, but in fact the master is the educator, let him think that he acts according to his own desire, but in fact this is the desire of the educator: “Of course, he should only do what he wants; but he should only want what you want from him.” “There is no submission so perfect as that which retains the outward appearance of freedom,” says Rousseau.

The upbringing of children begins at birth. According to Rousseau, the time of education in accordance with the natural characteristics of children is divided into 4 periods:

Infancy - from birth to 2 years; childhood - from 2 to 12 years; adolescence - from 12 to 15 years; youth - from 15 to marriage.

At each age, natural inclinations manifest themselves in different ways, the needs of the child change over the years. For example. growing up Emil LJ. Rousseau describes in detail the goals and objectives of education at each age.

The first years of life are the time of physical development, when the child needs to move, so you should not restrict his freedom, you need to allow him to move freely, without tightening him with diapers. During these years, you need to strengthen physical strength, harden the child. The mother herself needs to feed the child. You should not rush nature, forcing the child to say - everything has its time. “Slowly prepare the realm of freedom and the ability to use your own forces, giving his body natural habits, giving him the opportunity to always be the master of himself and in everything to act according to his will, as soon as he has it.”

In childhood (from 2 to 12 years) there is an accumulation of sensory experience, without which the activity of the mind is devoid of any content. Legs, hands, eyes are the first teachers of Emil, before the onset of a reasonable age, the child perceives "not ideas, but § images"; the child is amazed by everything that he sees and hears, everything around

His book serves him. The art of education consists in selecting those objects that he can know through the senses, and the stock of knowledge created will be replenished later. “... If you want to develop the mind of your pupil, develop the forces that he must control. Exercise continuously his body; make him strong and healthy, to make him wise and prudent; let him work, act, run, shout, let him always be in motion: let him be an adult in strength, and he will soon be an adult in mind. Then he is forced to observe a lot, gain experience. So, Emil takes lessons from nature, not from people. To replace these freaks with books is to teach him to use the minds of others. take everything on faith and know nothing. The sense organs are the instruments of the mind.

Education is in vogue, writes Rousseau, which recommends reasoning with children; this is how "young scientists and old children" are obtained. But children must remain children before they become adults. In an effort to make the child intelligent, they begin to educate him with the help of reason, which means that they start from the end: "Speaking to children from the very beginning in a language they do not understand, we teach them to get off with empty words." Children have their own way of seeing, thinking, feeling, so it is pointless to demand adult reasoning from a ten-year-old child.

But still, it is necessary to teach the child to read and write, and for this, Rousseau advises, first of all it is necessary to arouse the desire to learn: “Inspire the child with this desire, and any method will be good”, “Direct interest is the great engine, the only one that leads true and far.

Rousseau describes an example of how Emile learned to read. The boy receives notes with an invitation to dinner, a walk, etc. He needs to find someone to read them, but such a person is not always available at the right time or he is busy. Finally, a note is read to him, but it's too late, the moment has passed. “Oh, if only he could read!” The child strains his strength, trying to read the following notes, he gets something with the help of adults. Well, then things go quickly and easily. The same is with the letter.

Interest in learning makes it a desirable and natural occupation. Living in the village, the child receives from his observations the concept of field work; this age is characterized by the desire to create, act, imitate. And Emil has a desire to do gardening; he, together with the teacher, sows beans, waters, takes care of the seedlings. But one day: “... Oh, the spectacle! Oh, grief! The beans are all torn out, the soil is all blown up - you can’t even recognize the place. ALAS! "The young heart is outraged. Tears flow in streams." It turns out that the gardener has done trouble - he sowed this area with melon seeds even earlier. "No one touches his neighbor's garden, everyone respects the work of the other, so that his own is provided," he instructs Emil. Thus, the idea of ​​property is also mastered by the boy from personal experience, and not from abstract instructions and reasoning.

Also, from experience, the child receives lessons in behavior, moral relations. He does not want to reckon with others, gives them life's inconveniences - even from his own experience - he will understand the impossibility of such behavior: “He breaks his furniture - do not rush to replace it with a new one: let him feel the harm of deprivation. He beats the windows in his room: let the wind blow on him - do not be afraid that he will get a runny nose, it is better for him to be with a runny nose than a madcap.

“Punishment should never be imposed on children as a punishment, it should always be the natural consequence of their bad deed,” Rousseau points out. Children should not be punished directly for lying, but all the bad consequences of their act should be reflected on them.

Physical development, which begins at birth, must continue to receive special attention. The clothes of the child should be the simplest, most comfortable, not restricting his movements; less use of hats. Children should be accustomed to the cold, it never harms if they are not wrapped up from an early age; accustom them to the heat of the sun. Children need a long sleep, they need a hard bed, because a soft one relaxes the body. Food should be simple."

In adolescence (12-15 years) there is a transition from the child's sensations to ideas and knowledge. From sensually perceived objects, the child passes to science. But the peculiarity of its study is | that he does not learn science, but invents it, discovers it himself. The task of the educator is not to teach science to Emil, but to arouse his interest, to give him methods of study. It is necessary to teach the child to focus on one subject, but not with the help of coercion, but with "the help of the pleasure he receives at the same time. You should not completely" satisfy his curiosity when he turns to the mentor with questions, then he has a desire to additionally learn new things himself . The child must be absorbed in the subject of study, and the educator must be absorbed in the child, in order to imperceptibly observe him, anticipating his feelings in advance, just as imperceptibly direct them, notice the conclusions that the child makes.

Manual labor brings a person closer to his natural state, the artisan depends only on his labor. Agriculture is the first craft of man, it is the most honest and useful, and Emil's labor education began with him. And then he himself will choose what to do; after all, he already knows how to use a lathe, planer, saw, you just need to acquire speed and ease in their use. A man is not suitable for such activities as tailoring (this is a female craft), trade. Emil would have liked the craft of a carpenter; for the same young men who have other inclinations, it is useful to make mathematical instruments, telescopes, etc. It is best to engage in several crafts, because these activities are needed not in order to become a specialist, but in order to become a person. By adolescence, Emil is hardworking, temperate, patient.

The role of the educator is unusual and peculiar: he does not teach the child anything, he awakens in him the desire to learn; he imperceptibly directs his activity, creating the necessary conditions; he organizes situations that allow the pupil to learn about the norms of morality. Thus, the educator does not impose anything on his pupil, but helps Emil to draw knowledge from his own experience.

Adolescence (from 15 years old): if before that Emil's body was strengthened, his external feelings and brain developed, now it is time to educate his heart.

At this time, feelings are of particular importance for a person. The child by nature is disposed to kindness and favorably relates to others. His first feeling is love for himself, and the second is for those around him. Now his upbringing has in mind the development of morality and religiosity.

Self-love should be directed towards good at this time, and emotions become the basis of all life. Even at this age, upbringing takes place not with instructions, but with communication with people, by example, by studying history: “.. All lessons should be given to young people in the form of actions, not words. Let them not learn from books what they can learn from experience.” But in cases where the experience is dangerous, instead of experiencing it yourself, you can stop at learning a lesson from history. So Emil was taught to avoid evil and do good. Particularly developed in him is sympathy for the poor and oppressed and a desire to help them.

Religious education proceeds in the same way - Emil gradually and naturally comes to the knowledge of the Divine principle, to the idea of ​​the creator of the world. In considering religion, Rousseau acted as a skeptic, refuting the dogmas of the church, and an accuser of the insincerity of the priests, which caused the wrath of the church, reprisals against the book, and his exile.

Thus ended this stage of Emil's life, now he needs a girlfriend. The last, fifth book of the novel, called "Sophie, or Zhen

A woman is specially created in order to please a man and be his subordinate. Sophie has good inclinations from birth, her heart is sensitive, her mind, although not deep, is perceptive, her character is accommodating. Sophie is not a beauty, but around her, men forget beautiful women. Sophie loves outfits and knows a lot about them. Sophie has natural talents; she learned to sing, can play the clavichord, dance. She can make her own dress, is familiar with the kitchen, knows how to keep accounts well. Sophie is religious, but there are few dogmas and rituals in her; she is silent and respectful; has all the qualities to please Emil. Her upbringing as a woman is naturally quite different from that of her fiancé.

Emil enters the time of love and happiness; when he is ready to marry his beloved, the teacher sends him abroad for two years to get acquainted with the life of other peoples. Only after returning from a trip, the young man receives consent to marriage. The teacher offers him to settle in the countryside: there the natural existence of people with an unperverted heart is possible, there they can do many good deeds for the villagers.

Thus ends the novel that caused such a violent reaction from society. In it, the author, exposing the vices of modern society, showed the way that is able to transform it - this is the education of a new Man. Rousseau defined a completely new system of education, since he was never an imitator in anything, he always remained original in poetry, philosophy, music, in the very perception of the world and thinking.

BORIS NIKOLAEVICH PERVUSHKIN

PEI "St. Petersburg School "Tete-a-Tete"

Mathematics teacher of the highest category

The main pedagogical ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1) Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva in 1712 in the family of a watchmaker, died in 1778.

2) His mother died in childbirth, so the uncle and the Calvinist priest were engaged in raising the child, as a result of which the boy's knowledge turned out to be disordered and chaotic.

3) A native of the people, he knew the humiliating burden of class inequality.

4) At the age of 16, in 1728, Rousseau, an engraver's student, leaves his native Geneva and wanders for many years through the cities and villages of Switzerland and France, without a specific profession and earning a livelihood by various occupations: a valet in one family, a musician, house secretary, music copyist.

5) In 1741, Rousseau moved to Paris, where he met and became close to Diderot and the encyclopedists

The upbringing of children begins at birth. According to Rousseau, the time of education in accordance with the natural characteristics of children is divided into 4 periods:

infancy - from birth to 2 years;

childhood - from 2 to 12 years;

adolescence - from 12 to 15 years;

youth - from 15 to marriage.

At each age, natural inclinations manifest themselves in different ways, the needs of the child change over the years. On the example of growing up Emil J.J. Rousseau describes in detail the goals and objectives of education at each age.

Main pedagogical ideas:

- A person from birth is kind and ready for happiness, he is endowed with natural inclinations, and the purpose of education is to preserve and develop the natural data of the child. The ideal is a person unspoiled by society and upbringing in his natural state.

- Natural education is carried out primarily by nature, nature is the best teacher, everything around the child serves as a textbook. Lessons are given by nature, not by people. The sensory experience of the child underlies the knowledge of the world, on its basis the pupil himself creates science.

- Freedom is a condition of natural education, the child does what he wants, and not what he is prescribed and ordered to do. But He wants what the teacher wants from him.

- The teacher, imperceptibly for the child, arouses his interest in classes and the desire to learn.

- Nothing is imposed on the child: neither science, nor rules of conduct; but he, driven by interest, gains experience from which conclusions are formulated.

- Sensory knowledge and experience become sources of scientific knowledge, which leads to the development of thinking. To develop the mind of the child and the ability to acquire knowledge himself, and not hammer it in ready-made, this task should be guided in teaching.

- Education is a delicate, without the use of violence, the direction of the free activity of the educated, the development of his natural inclinations and capabilities.

Rousseau's pedagogical theory was never embodied in the form in which the author imagined it, but he left ideas that were accepted by other enthusiasts, developed further and used in different ways in the practice of education and training.

"Russo! Russo! Your memory is now kind to people: you died, but your spirit lives in Emil, but your heart lives in Eloise, ”the Russian historian and writer expressed his admiration for the great Frenchman

Karamzin.

Main works:

1750 - "Discourses on the Sciences and Arts" (treatise).

1761 - "New Eloise" (novel).

1762 - "Emil, or On Education" (a novel-treatise).

1772 - "Confession".

Jean Jacques participated in the creation of the Encyclopedia, wrote articles for it.

Rousseau's first essay, Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750), says "... with what force could I tell about all the abuses of our social institutions, how simply could I prove that a person is good by nature and only thanks to these institutions, people have become evil!"

In Emile or On Education, Rousseau declared: “Labor is an inevitable duty for a social person. Every idle citizen - rich or poor, strong or weak - is a rogue."

Rousseau believes that unruly feelings without the discipline of the mind lead to individualism, chaos and anarchy.

Rousseau outlines three types of education and three types of teacher: Nature, People and Objects. All of them participate in the upbringing of a person: nature internally develops our inclinations and organs, people help to use this development, objects act on us and give us experience. Natural education does not depend on us, but acts independently. Subject education partly depends on us.

“Education of a person begins from his birth. He does not speak yet, he does not listen yet, but he is already learning. Experience comes before learning."

He fights for the triumph of reason. Evil originated with society, and with the help of a renewed society, it can be driven out and defeated.

A person in a "state of nature". A natural person in his understanding is a holistic, kind, biologically healthy, morally honest and fair person.

Upbringing - a great thing, and it can create a free and happy person. The natural man - Rousseau's ideal - is harmonious and whole, he has highly developed qualities of a citizen, a patriot of his Motherland. He is absolutely free from selfishness.

The role of the educator for Rousseau is to educate children and give them one single craft - life. According to Emil's teacher, neither a judicial officer, nor a military man, nor a priest will come out of his hands - first of all, it will be a person who can be both.

Roman treatise "Emil or about Education" is the main pedagogical work of Rousseau, entirely devoted to the problems of human education. To express his pedagogical ideas, Rousseau created a situation where the educator begins to educate a child left an orphan from infancy and takes on the rights and obligations of parents. And Emil is entirely the fruit of his many efforts as an educator.

BOOK 1

(The first year of life. Nature, society, light and their relationship to education.)

"Plants are given form by cultivation, and men by education." “We are born deprived of everything - we need help; we are born meaningless - we need reason. Everything that we do not have at birth and without which we cannot do when we become adults, is given to us by education.

“Let the body develop freely, do not interfere with nature”

BOOK 2

(Children's age. Growth of strength. The concept of ability. Stubbornness and lies. Non-intelligence of book learning. Bodily education. Proper development of the senses. Age from 2 to 12 years.)

“Bringing up Emil according to the principle of natural consequences, he punishes Emil by depriving him of his freedom, i.e. break a window - sit in the cold, break a chair - sit on the floor, break a spoon - eat with your hands. At this age, the educative role of example is great, so it is necessary to rely on it in raising a child.

"The idea of ​​property naturally goes back to the nature of the first possession through labor."

BOOK 3

(Adolescence period of life. The use of forces in the accumulation of knowledge and experience needed in later life. Knowledge of the outside world. Knowledge of the people around. Craft. 12-15th year of life.)

“By the age of 12, Emil is strong, independent, able to quickly navigate and grasp the most important, then the world around him through his feelings. He is fully prepared to master mental and labor education. "Emil's head is the head of a philosopher, and Emil's hands are the hands of an artisan"

BOOK 4

(The period is up to 25 years. The “period of storms and passions” is the period of moral education.) The three tasks of moral education are the education of good feelings, good judgments and good will, seeing the “ideal” person in front of you all the time. Before the age of 17-18, a young man should not talk about religion, Rousseau is convinced that Emile thinks about the root cause and independently comes to the knowledge of the divine principle.

BOOK 5

(Dedicates to the upbringing of girls, in particular Emil's bride - Sophie.)

“A woman should be brought up in accordance with the desires of a man. Adaptation to the opinions of others, the absence of independent judgments, even of one's own religion, meek submission to someone else's will is the destiny of a woman.

the "natural state" of a woman is dependence; “girls feel made to obey. They don't need any serious mental work."