The history of the appearance of rings in the form of a crown. Crown of the British Empire: the history of creation. Crowns of the British and Russian Empires

The jewels of monarchs have always made human hearts tremble. Indeed, even the most ordinary diamond, set by a master in gold for a crowned person, becomes the most august value and begins to shine differently. What can we say about the unique representatives of the world of stones, which traditionally took their place in the symbols of royal power. The crown - the immutable sign of the ruler's distinction from mere mortals - had to be convincing.

And that is why the lords of all times spared no expense in the manufacture of this special piece of jewelry: the finest gems, best gold, the best masters jewelry business. Today, most of these masterpieces rest peacefully on pillows in museums, under reliable protection. The same crowns that still adorn representatives of the "acting" dynasties no longer have such power as before, and are perceived rather as a tribute to tradition. But there were times when people were ready to pay with their lives, their own or someone else's, for the opportunity to put a crown on their heads for at least a few days. This is because this precious symbol was indisputably associated with the divine nature of supreme power and forced anyone to bow before its owner. But the rulers succeeded each other, the names of many were lost in the labyrinths of centuries, and the crowns that once crowned their heads still arouse admiration and riddles for historians.

Sign of the Chosen

It is well known that the tradition of celebrating the winner with a triumphal wreath came from the ancient era. Initially, in "simple" times, these insignia were made from living branches, and not necessarily laurel. Wreaths could also be woven from oak or olive - it depended on which of the gods acted as the patron of the competition. Actually, the Latin word "corona" means "wreath". But time passed, and to change natural material Eternal gold has arrived. In the era of Roman luxury, crowns began to decorate precious stones, and by the richness of these decorations one could judge the status of the owner. The barbarians who destroyed Rome probably adopted the tradition of decorating the heads of their leaders with a golden circlet. And then, for many centuries, the august persons of the European powers tried to outdo each other with the luxury of crowns. The largest, most amazing, most expensive stones and relics were used for decoration. Only the weight of the future crown limited the imagination of the monarchs, everything else did not matter. So, in the manufacture of a crown for the Russian Empress Catherine II, the craftsmen performed a miracle in two months: a crown of gold and silver, on which 4936 diamonds and 75 large pearls sparkled, weighed a little less than two kilograms.

Coronation has always solved all issues of the legitimacy of succession to the throne - the one who is entrusted with the symbol of royal dignity is a full-fledged ruler. This rite had no retroactive effect.

And then the dissatisfied had to either reconcile, or plot. In the event of a successful coup, the winner received the same crown. The sanctity of this symbol of power could not be shaken even by revolutions - in most cases, the matter ended with the restoration of the monarchy. In the Netherlands, for example, in 1815 it was decided to restore royal power after 200 years of the existence of the republic. It is curious that at the same time the most "budget" European crown was made - from gilded silver and a cap. The practical Dutch also did not spend money on real gems. However, this did not affect the prestige of the royal family.

Lombard gold

Perhaps the oldest European crown is considered to be the so-called "iron" crown of the Lombards. The exact time of birth of this crown is unknown due to the antiquity of origin. It is traditionally believed that this crown was made in the 6th century for Theodolinda, the queen of the Lombard tribe. True, some scientists believe that the crown was made earlier and its original “homeland” is Byzantium. One way or another, the legend claims that the Pope of Rome gave Theodolinda a nail from the Cross of the Lord and the queen ordered an iron hoop to be forged from the relic, with which the links of the crown were fastened from the inside. It is because of this detail that it began to be called "iron". If you do not look inside out, then the ancient sign of royal power consists of patterned gold plates decorated with enamel and precious stones. The diameter of the crown is also remarkable - it is too small for a crown that can cover the head. Scientists also argue about the size, but the "official version" says that two plates were lost at the time when the royal jewel was pledged. This happened in 1248, when the inhabitants of the city of Monza - the place of permanent residence of the crown - did not have enough money for the war. They were able to redeem the royal artifact only after 70 years.

But it was the official regalia of the Italian royal court, and emperors were crowned with it! By the way, when Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself the ruler of Italy, he also symbolically put on himself the "iron" crown.

For less solemn occasions, he ordered a special, Italian crown, made in the royal fashion of the 18th century, which was more comfortable to wear. Later, the crown of the Lombards more than once overshadowed the Italian monarchs, and now it still resides in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Monza. True, the last Scientific research dealt her a crushing blow: it turned out that the miraculously stainless strip of the Nail of God was made of silver, and thus the legend of Queen Theodolinda is no good ... On the other hand, this crown crowned so many great people who believed in her mystical power that she is not afraid of any scientific revelations - she will forever remain the "iron crown", remembering Byzantium and Charlemagne.

Riddles of the royal cap

While Europe was crowning its monarchs with luxurious crowns, in Russia a Monomakh's hat trimmed with fur was placed on a representative of the supreme power. As befits an ancient artifact, this sign of royal dignity, of course, causes controversy. So, the chronicles say that the precious headdress was donated to the Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh by his grandfather, the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX, as a sign of continuity from one Orthodox power to another. But although the version was considered “the only true one” for centuries, modern historians have carefully compared the dates of the lives of both rulers, and the version has become very doubtful. There are also suggestions that the golden cap remained in the royal treasury from the time of the Golden Horde and is of Asian origin. But in any case, this ancient headdress is a work of art.

The top of the cap (represents a skullcap) is made of 8 gold plates covered with patterned filigree (a pattern similar in technique to filigree) and decorated with eight large precious stones - four rubies and four emeralds. The cap is crowned with a hammered “apple”, on which a cross decorated with pearls is mounted, which was probably added later, like the expensive one. sable fur who replaced the gold pendants. The first to "marry the kingdom" with this regalia was Ivan the Terrible. And this tradition, having passed to the rest of the Russian monarchs, was kept until 1682, when two heirs were elevated to the throne at once - Ivan and Peter. For the sake of such an amazing case for Russian history, for the youngest - Pyotr Alekseevich - a “cap of the second outfit” was made, in the image and likeness of the main crown, but somewhat simpler. However, the coronation of the "copy" did not prevent Peter I from becoming one of the greatest Russian monarchs. However, never more hat Monomakh was not used for crowning the kingdom - the age of imperial crowns was coming. And the golden headdress with a foggy past has successfully survived to this day, miraculously surviving in troubled times, is stored in the Kremlin Armory and still keeps its secrets.

Great Jewels of Great Britain

It would seem that Great Britain, a stronghold of monarchical traditions, could boast of the most ancient crowns of kings. But alas, this island did not escape the revolution, and most of the treasures of the crown were destroyed or sold during the reign of Oliver Cromwell (1653-1658). Some of the legendary gems from the treasury of the royal house were nevertheless returned, and now they adorn the crown of the British Empire, delighting everyone with their history.

Starting from the top, the cross that crowns the crown contains a St. Edward's sapphire. During the life of the monarch, this stone adorned the royal ring. And, according to legend, one day the king gave it to a beggar as alms. But after some time, two pilgrims from the Holy Land brought the ring to Edward. At the same time, they told a wonderful story about an old man who led them out of a sandstorm, and in the morning brought royal jewel and asked to give the owner. Soon the king died, and when, years later, his grave was opened, the body turned out to be incorrupt. This was recognized as a miracle, the king was canonized, the ring was returned to the treasury, and centuries later, a sapphire crowned the crown.

Another famous stone - the ruby ​​of the Black Prince - adorns the imperial crown in front. And although this is not a ruby ​​at all, but a large noble spinel, the stone also has its own history: it was received in payment for military aid another Edward, nicknamed the "black prince" because of the color of his armor. The stone was passed down through the royal family and is said to have saved the life of Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt.

Under the "ruby" is the "Small Star of Africa", also known as the Cullinan II (weight 317.4 carats). His ancestor, the Cullinan diamond itself, weighed ten times as much and was presented to Edward VII. But the stone, although huge, had a far from brilliant appearance and several cracks. After sawing it up by Dutch jewelers, a whole family of Cullinans of various sizes was born, and the most important of them adorned the royal scepter, and the smaller one, the imperial crown.

And finally, the last large stone in this jewel is located strictly opposite, on the back of the crown - this is the so-called Stuart sapphire, inherited from the extinct dynasty. The stone wandered from Scotland to England and back for a long time, until it found its place on the crown of the united Great Britain. In total, the royal crown is decorated with 2868 diamonds, 273 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds and 5 rubies, but its weight is only 910 grams. The previous version of this crown was heavier, which caused noticeable inconvenience to the monarchs. However, compared to the crown of St. Edward, which weighs more than two kilograms and is used for official coronation, the imperial crown is not so burdensome. By the way, these british crowns are not the property of the royal house, they belong to the state. And in "free time from work" lie in the Tower, playing the role museum exhibits. So, to see them up close, it is not at all necessary to ask for an audience with the queen.

The main regalia, confirming the power of monarchs, is considered a crown or crown. The rulers, competing in the splendor and luxury of symbols of power, decorated their crowns made of gold and silver with rare and very expensive stones. In this review - the most famous crowns of the world, among which it is not so easy to determine the most-most.

The crown of the kings and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire has several names, one of the most famous is the crown of Charlemagne, and it was made at the end of the 10th century.

Crown of Kings and Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire.

This oldest jewelry masterpiece, unlike other crowns, the original shape in the form of an octahedron, is decorated with 144 precious stones and pearls. Initially kept in Nuremberg, when there was a threat of the capture of this city by the troops of Napoleon, who sought to get it for his coronation, the crown was transported to Vienna and hidden there. It is now kept in the Vienna Museum.

Crown of the British Empire.

The famous jewel, made in 1911, is not the property of the Queen, but belongs to the state, and its main repository is the Tower Fortress Museum, and the current Queen Elizabeth II puts on the crown only on the occasion of the annual opening ceremony of Parliament or other state celebrations. And although the crown has a relatively light weight, 910 grams, the queen, in order to get used to it and not be embarrassed at the ceremony, puts on the crown in advance and walks in it for several hours. On these rare days, you can see the queen with a magnificent crown flaunting on her head at breakfast in home environment or reading the newspapers.

Big Crown Russian Empire.

This jewel, which overshadowed the crowns of all foreign rulers with its brilliance and splendor, was conceived by Catherine II for her coronation in 1762. Famous jewelers, who worked on its creation, managed to create this miracle in just two months.

An elegant openwork frame in the form of two hemispheres (symbolizing East and West) made of gold and silver, reminiscent of an oriental headdress, was made by the chief court jeweler Eckart. But Eckart entrusted the selection of stones for the crown and its decoration to the jeweler Pozier, who brilliantly coped with this. Rows of frosted pearls perfectly emphasize the sparkle of a placer of diamonds, and a real treasure crowns the crown - rare mineral, a bright red ruby ​​snipe weighing about 400 carats, brought back in the 16th century from China. Today, this national treasure is exhibited in the famous Diamond Fund.


Diamonds and pearls of the Grand Crown.

Red Spinel Big Crown.

Crowns and Crowns of Russia

At a time when Europe crowned its rulers with luxurious crowns, in Russia they were replaced by gem-studded crowns, the most famous of which is the Monomakh's hat. Ivan the Terrible was the first to be crowned with her.

The famous Cap of Monomakh.

The transition to imperial crowns in Russia occurred thanks to Peter I. Having himself crowned with the Cap of Monomakh, he ordered to make the first Russian crown of gilded silver, which his wife Catherine I was lucky to become the owner of.


The first Russian crown.

Empress Anna Ioannovna ordered for her coronation new crown, and it was made in accordance with her tastes and wishes, many precious stones were used from the crown of Catherine I.

Crown of Empress Anna Ioannovna.

From 1872 until the fall of the empire, all Russian emperors were crowned with the famous Grand Imperial Crown. And for the coronation of queens, several copies of this crown were made. smaller but only one of them survived.


Small imperial crown.

Nicholas II with his wife wearing imperial crowns.

As it often happens, when speaking about a certain historical subject, one must start from afar. This case is no exception, and we will have to dive deep into the centuries to trace the origin and development of the diadem - the insignia, which became the progenitor of all Byzantine crowns.

Now the imperial title is strongly associated with the crown, all the more interesting that, during the first three centuries, the Roman emperors did not use this accessory at all. The reason is the conservatism of Roman society.
Let me remind you that after the overthrow of the ancient Roman kings, the monarchy in Roman society was strongly associated with tyranny and, of course, such an exclusively monarchical regalia as the crown caused an extremely negative reaction.
We do not know exactly what the crown of the Roman Rex kings looked like, however, this is in our research and does not really matter. After all, the cultural neighbors of the Romans were the Hellenistic monarchies and Roman society began to identify the crown with such an insignia of the Hellenistic world as diadem.

In our time, a diadem is usually understood as an elegant female jewelry made of precious metals and stones. But this is now, and in ancient times everything looked a little different. The antique royal diadem was just a bandage made of fabric, tied in a knot at the back of the head, with free ends hanging down from behind. Actually, the Greek word diadem itself (διάδημα) just means “bandage” and comes from the Greek verb διαδέω, which means “to tie, bandage”. Of course, in the ancient world, not only kings could tie their heads. The bandage holding the hair was a completely household accessory for artisans, priests, athletes (remember, for example, ancient greek statue Delphic charioteer), etc. How did the royal bandage differ from any other?
Quite a few images of the royal diadem have survived to our time. For example, on coins and reliefs of Hellenistic sovereigns:

But of course this is not enough, especially when it comes to color.
Alas, the ancient primary sources do not contain direct description diadems, and this is not surprising, because they wrote for their own circle, and they did not need to describe what is generally known. However, it is possible to trace indirect indications of what kind of diadem it was.

Plutarch, for example, has a rather dramatic story. The Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator was defeated by the Romans and sent a servant to one of his residences with an order to kill all the women of the royal house so that they would not get to the enemies. The proud wife of Mithridates, Queen Monima, decided to commit suicide herself: “When Bakhid appeared and ordered the women to kill themselves in the way that each of them would consider the easiest and most painless, Monima tore off the diadem from her head, wrapped it around her neck and hung herself, but immediately fell off. “Damned rag,” she said, “and you did not render me this service!” Spitting on the diadem, she threw it away and offered her throat to Bakhid to be slaughtered. *

A less tragic episode with a diadem, we meet with Arrian in his book dedicated to Alexander the Great: “ Alexander himself ruled the trireme while sailing on the lakes; strong wind a cap with a diadem was blown off his head: the cap, as a heavier one, fell into the water, and the wind picked up the diadem, and it got stuck in the reeds that grew on the grave of some ancient king.**

We find another hint in the History of Rome by Ammianus Marcellinus: “Since the evil envious people who attacked Pompey could not, in spite of all diligence, find anything for which to blame him, they found out the following two trifles worthy of laughter: that he somehow scratched his head with one finger in his own way, and that during tied for some time white bandage knee to cover up an ugly ulcer. In the first they saw a manifestation of licentiousness, in the second a passion for innovation; it doesn't matter - so their unwitty slander went - on which part of the body to wear distinction of royal dignity. ***

From these texts it follows that the diadem was relatively long (sufficient to make a long loop out of it). The fabric from which it was made was thin and light enough to be blown away by the wind. And most importantly, she was white.

This is how the diadem is presented, for example, on an antique mosaic from Pompeii:

Mosaic from the "memento mori" series has a complex symbolism. Here is a wheel of fortune (fate) surmounted by a skull (death), between which is sandwiched a butterfly (soul). All this structure balances the level with a plumb line, on the sides of which we see the symbols of the kingdom (scepter, scarlet and diadem) and the symbols of poverty (staff, sackcloth and scrip).
As we see on the mosaic and on numerous Hellenistic coins(as well as cameos, busts, statues, etc.) the ends of the diadem were often decorated with fringes.

Of course, it can be assumed that the luxury-minded monarchsHellenistic period, they could decorate their diadems with embroidery, or combine it with gold wreaths, but, in fact, it always remained just a ribbon.
Characteristically, for their native subjects, the Hellenistic rulers dressed inlocal royal ornaments and, accordingly, tiaras of eastern rulers. But for the Greek world, their distinction was exclusively a diadem. Although, sometimes the native dress could be combined with a diadem, as in this relief image of the Egyptian king Ptolemy VI Philometor.

nbsp;
Notes:
* Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Lucullus. eighteen
** Arrian. Alexander's hike. 21.2.
*** Ammianus Marcellinus. Roman history. Book XVII. 11.4

Original taken from bizantinum in History of the Byzantine crowns. Part 1. Hellenistic diadems. (continuation)

Now that the headdress of the monarchstrongly associated with goldand jewelsit is rather difficult to imagine the royal crown in the form of a white ribbon with a fringe, but, nevertheless, it is from this simple ribbon that they trace their genealogy luxurious crowns Roman Basils.

The origin of the diadem is now difficult to trace. Diodorus Siculus, for example, argued that the diadem was introduced by the god Dionysus, who, as you know, in the ancient pantheon specialized in winemaking and wine drinking, taking a lively part in these areas of human activity. So, according to Diodorus, the diadem goes back to the towel with which Dionysus tied his head in order to relieve a hangover. headache*. The version is certainly very witty, but no more.

In fact, the sources of the origin of the diadem should be sought in the East, where headbands various kinds were elements of royal and priestly clothes. Thus, the Greek authors directly speak of the diadem as part of the ornate of the Persian kings**. Interestingly, for the fine art of the Achaemenids, the diadem is not very typical, but is much more common in the iconography of the Assyrian kings.

Relief depicting King Ashurbanipal crowned with a tiara and diadem:

But in fact, Alexander the Great introduced the diadem into the category of regalia. When he conquered the Persian state of the Achaemenids, it became clear that the manners and customs of the small Greek polis states did not correspond to the greatness of the new empire. Moreover, the conquerors - Macedonians and Greeks, although they constituted the elite of this empire, but the local multinational elite also did not stand aside (as you know, Alexander retained many Persian satraps in his posts and generally favored his new subjects). Alexander the Great wanted representatives of different cultures and therefore his court, the ceremonial of this court, and even the vestments, had an eclectic appearance, combining western and eastern elements. Alexander borrowed something from the Persian rulers, rejected something. Obviously, the Macedonians were not ready to see their king in an oriental tiara, while a diadem tying this tiara seemed to be a more acceptable compromise.

But be that as it may, starting from the era of Alexander the Great, the diadem is unambiguously considered a generally recognized insignia of royal power. When Alexander died, and his direct heirs were eliminated, the Macedonian military leaders (diadochi) began to divide Alexander's state. One by one they took the royal title, and this acceptance was accompanied precisely by the laying on of the diadem.

So, for many centuries, the diadem became a symbol of royal power throughout the Hellenistic world and even beyond. Later, the diadem entered Christian iconography as an attribute of angelic vestments, but more on that later.

CONTINUATION

Notes:
* Diodorus Siculus. Historical library. Book IV. 4.4
** Xenophon. Cyropedia. 3.8; Polian. Strategems. 17.12

Original taken from bizantinum in History of the Byzantine crowns. Part 2. Diademophobia and award wreaths.

As mentioned above (beginning and), Roman society was extremely conservative.And, since the Roman state itself was founded as a rebellion against the monarchy, anti-monarchism and "republican virtues" were always an indisputable thing and were cultivated in every possible way. Thus, diadem, as the main sign of royal power, was banned.

Moreover, the accusation of wanting to crown yourself with a diadem could ruin anyone's political career. So, for example, among the reasons that led to the death of the legislator Tiberius Gracchus, there were also accusations of wanting royal power and a diadem. Word to Plutarch: “At this time, Attalus Philometor [King of Pergamon] died, and when Eudemus of Pergamum brought his will, in which the king appointed the Roman people as his heir, Tiberius, to please the crowd, immediately proposed that the royal treasury be delivered to Rome and divided among the citizens who received land so that they could acquire agricultural tools and start farming. As for the cities that belonged to Attalus, their fate should not be controlled by the senate, and therefore he, Tiberius, will present his opinion to the people. The latter offended the Senate beyond all measure, and Pompey, rising, declared that he lived next to Tiberius, and therefore knew that Eudemus of Pergamum had given him a diadem and purple from the royal treasures, for Tiberius was preparing and expecting to become king in Rome "*.

That is why the same dictator Sulla, who had practically unlimited power in Rome, did not even try to hint at the diadem. But Gaius Julius Caesar himself fell into this trap. Becoming in February 44 BC. dictator for life dictator perpetuus) and, assuming that nothing could threaten his power, he apparently wanted to formalize it by officially accepting the royal title, for which they gradually began to prepare the people. First, Caesar's supporters decorated his statues with diadems, then, during the holiday, Antony had to bring a real diadem to Caesar, and he, based on the reaction of the people, would accept it or reject it. The reaction of Roman society was appropriate: “And now Antony […] approaches with a diadem entwined with laurel to the dais […] stretches out his hand with a diadem to the head of Caesar - as a sign that royal power is fitting for him. Caesar, however, assumed a stern air and leaned back, and the citizens responded to this with joyful applause. Antony offered him the diadem again, Caesar again rejected it, and the struggle between them dragged on. long time, and Antony, who insisted on his own, was applauded each time by a few friends, and Caesar, who rejected the crown, was applauded by the whole people. Amazing thing! Those who, in essence, were already under royal power, feared the royal title, as if in it alone there was a loss of freedom! ... A wreath with a diadem, laid on one of his statues, was removed by several people's tribunes, and the people, with loud cries of approval, escorted them home, but Caesar dismissed him from office "**.

"Antony brings the diadem to Caesar." Illustration from "World History" 1894

This episode was one of many moments that provoked the death of the great dictator. The conservatism of Roman society should not be underestimated. Even 400 years after Caesar, when the sight of the emperor crowned with a diadem could not surprise anyone, Aurelius Victor writes the following symptomatic lines about Constantine the Great: “He adorned his royal clothes with precious stones, his head was constantly decorated with a diadem. However, he perfectly performed a number of things: with the strictest laws, he suppressed slander, supported the free arts, especially literature, he himself read a lot, wrote, thought, listened to ambassadors, complaints from the provincials.*** I.e. - of course, he constantly wore an ornamented diadem (and this is monstrous!), but that's how much good he did and this, as it were, justifies him. We certainly do not understand such rigorism. But Aurelius Victor is not alone. This incomprehensible hatred of Hellenistic clothes runs like a red thread through almost all the works of Roman historians. It is sometimes funny to read when the list of atrocities of another tyrant, in addition to murders, debauchery, extortion, etc. there are such "terrible crimes" as wearing colored silk robes.

And yet, the rulers of Rome had to reckon with similar prejudices of Roman society for hundreds of years after the assassination of Caesar.

The heir and successor of Caesar - Augustus, took into account all the mistakes of his predecessors and founded a new political system - the Principate. The essence of which was to preserve all external signs republics, with a full monarchist filling. Of course, in this situation, there could be no talk of a diadem. But the head of state must still have some external brilliance. At the same time, in the Roman tradition, quite legal grounds there was a system of various wreaths, as a distinction of citizens for various merits.

Let me remind the reader of these awards:
1. civil wreath (corona civica), from oak leaves, was awarded for saving the lives of citizens.
2. Siege wreath (corona obsidionalis), from grass, for the liberation of the city from the siege.
3. Wall wreath (corona muralis), stylized as fortress walls, for those who first climbed the wall and broke into the enemy city.
4. Siege wreath (corona vallaris), a variation of the previous one, for those who were the first to climb the rampart of an enemy fortification.
5. Marine wreath (corona navalis), stylized as rostra (the bow of a ship with a ram), for those who first broke into an enemy ship.

Illustration from Peter Connolly's book "Greece and Rome"

There were other wreaths: camp (corona castrensis)- a kind of siege-wall, oval (corona ovalis), from myrtle, for commanders solemnly entering the city but not in triumph (a triumph was assigned for a victory over a “worthy” enemy, and an ovation for a victory over pirates, rebellious slaves, etc.) and oilseed (corona oleaginea), respectively, from the olive, for those who were honored with a triumph but did not personally participate in the battle.
But the most honorable triumphal wreath (corona triumphalis). By letter, being laurel, it was in fact made of gold.

From this abundance of awards, as an unofficial regalia, the Roman emperors selected two wreaths for themselves - triumphal and civil.
Read about this and how the Romans nevertheless adopted such a hated diadem in the next publication.

* Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Tiberius Gracchus. fourteen
** Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Anthony. 12
*** Aurelius Victor. About Caesars. XLI, 14

Note: the title image is Augustus in a triumphal wreath, antique comeo.

Original taken from bizantinum in History of the Byzantine crowns. Part 3. Imperial wreaths and ray crown

As we spoke in last entry, as roman headdresses Emperors used wreaths from reward system Roman Republic - Triumphal and Civil (corona triumphalis and corona civica), the first of which was laurel, the second - oak.
Of course, those times when these headdresses were made directly from laurel or oak leaves have passed.
Even in the Hellenistic world, wreaths intended for persons of royal blood (or for religious rites) were made from sheet gold.

The same was true in Rome. And the further, the more magnificent these "wreaths" became. Over time, they began to decorate with large precious stones.
For the first time, in the texts of that period, these jeweled wreaths are mentioned, it seems, in Dio Cassius, who describes a similar decoration of the emperor Commodus, who "dressed in a cloak, all magenta and shining with gold, cut in the style of a Greek mantle, put on a crown made of gold and Indian stones»*. However, in fine arts it appears long before the reign of Commodus.

How this crown looked like, we are shown sculptural imperial portraits, for example, a bust of Trajan in a civil wreath from the Munich Glyptothek:

As well as a tondo depicting the family of Emperor Septimius Severus: himself, his wife Julia Domna and children - Geta and Caracalla. After the murder of Geta by Caracalla, many images of the first were destroyed, including on this tondo, now stored in Germany in the antique collection in Charlottenburg, his portrait was also erased. Septimius and sons were depicted in triumphal wreaths:

So. Imperial wreaths were a replica in metal of "analogue" wreaths, fixed on a narrow hoop. The hoop was not closed and its ends were connected with a ribbon, which was tied into a knot, as in a real wreath, or (if the hoop was closed) they lost their functional purpose and became just a decorative element.
In the center (near the forehead) the crown was decorated with a medallion. This kind of decorative crowns, as mentioned above, were known in Ancient Greece. The tradition of their use in rituals did not stop later and, therefore, they are often found in burials.

Golden wreath with the image of Aphrodite from the burial in Gorgippia (Bosporan kingdom) II-III c. according to R.H.

Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic prototypes, the Roman wreath was decorated not just with a chased medallion, but with a very large precious stone. However, there could have been more such medallions.

Corona triumphalis imperial period (drawing by the author)

The psychology of Roman conservatives is amazing - a simple white ribbon on their heads was perceived by them as an attack on the foundations of Roman statehood, but a luxurious golden crown adorned with jewels was accepted in principle, because it formally remained a wreath.

Separately, it is worth mentioning the special crowns that are present on some imperial images, in particular on coins. These are the so-called ray corona .

Coin with the image of Emperor Philip I of Arabia wearing a ray crown.

This crown originates from the iconography of the solar deities: Apollo, Helios, Elagabalus, Mithras and the "Invincible Sun" (sol Invictus). The cult of the monarch in the Hellenistic world somehow intersected with the cults of these deities, which was reflected in numismatics:

Coin depicting the Egyptian king Ptolemy III

Coin depicting the Syrian king Antiochus VI

From Hellenism, the ray crown migrated to Rome. On Roman imperial coins, it appears almost immediately - from Augustus. And starting from Caracalla, the image of the emperor in a ray crown on the obverse became a sign of a new coin - antoninian (see above the antoninian of Philip I).
If the antoninian depicted not the emperor, but the empress, then her image was no longer accompanied by a radial crown, but by a crescent (the association is obvious: the emperor is the image of the Sun, the empress is the image of the Moon).

Antoninian depicting Empress Otacilia Severa, wife of Philip II

This moment testifies in favor of the fact that, most likely, the ray crown was only a symbol and was not used in real life. In addition, it is not mentioned in the sources and is not found in sculptural portraits in the same way.

In the next essay, we will talk about diadems, which, despite the resistance of the conservative Roman elite, nevertheless entered court use.

* Dio Cassius. Roman history. Book LXXII. 19.3

Note: title image - emperor Commodus in a triumphal wreath and radial crown, antique gem

Original taken from bizantinum in History of the Byzantine crowns. Part 4. Imperial diadems.

III century in Roman history was in many ways turning point.
First of all, this was reflected in the crisis of the Supreme Power. The democratic atavisms of the principate system eventually began to work against the state system itself. After all, formally the emperor was the chosen one of the Senate and the people. So, any commander, shouted out by his legions, became a contender for the throne. The most successful of these commanders captured Rome, and the Senate was forced to legitimize their power. The less fortunate dug in in the provinces and, neglecting Rome, founded their own mini-empire.
Thus Gaul, Illyria and Palmyra fell away.
This contributed to the local barbarization of Roman society, as did the barbarian mercenaries who served in the army. "Barbarian" customs penetrated into all spheres of Roman life, and influenced fashion.
When the emperor Aurelian restored the unity of the Empire, the question arose of strengthening the prestige of the supreme power. And here the eastern influence manifested itself. Firstly, the conquest of the deposited East of the Empire with its capital in Palmyra, where Queen Zenobia (Zenobia) and representatives of her house introduced Hellenistic mores, influenced. And secondly, the rivalry with the Parthian Kingdom, which by that time had restored the Persian state and became a full-fledged successor to both the Achaemenids and the Seleucids.

The power of the emperor had to be adequately represented in external ceremonial manifestations. Both for foreign ambassadors and for his own subjects, the Emperor of Rome had to look no worse than the eastern rulers and, first of all, his Parthian-Persian rivals.
Aurelian, apparently, was the first to introduce oriental ceremonial. In any case, the anonymous author of "Excerpts on the manners and life of the Roman Emperors", which are attributed to Aurelius Victor, has this mention: “he was the first among the Romans to put on his head a diadem adorned with gold and precious stones, which before that seemed completely alien to Roman customs” *.
In fact, the diadem appears in imperial iconography only starting with Constantine the Great. However, indeed, the emperors of this period, whose activities were aimed at strengthening the state, simultaneously with the reforms state apparatus, armies, etc. there is also a tendency to represent their power more magnificently due to the complication of the ceremonial and the introduction of precious oriental clothes.
Yes, Diocletian “He began to put on clothes woven from gold, and wished to use silk, purple and precious stones even for his feet” **. He is also sometimes credited with wearing a diadem.

But nevertheless, the diadem finally becomes the official imperial regalia under the first Christian Emperor. The inauguration of Constantine's successors is necessarily accompanied by the laying on of a diadem. In its absence, the diadem could be replaced by a similar object, but the coronation had to happen without fail. For example, when in 360 in Gaul the legions proclaimed Julian (the Apostate) Emperor, the diadem was replaced by the neck chain of the standard-bearer ***.

The introduction of the diadem, as well as the introduction of the Oriental ceremonial, is most appropriate, as already mentioned, to explain the Persian influence. This influence lasted quite a long time and was mutual. As for the new Persian rulers, they adopted in their everyday life both the ancient Achaemenid and the new Hellenistic Seleucid forms. In this sense, the diadem was also an unequivocal royal symbol, along with the tiara.
Thus, the Emperor of Rome, in no way inferior to the eastern "King of Kings" and competing with him for power over the Middle Eastern provinces, had to be not inferior in the outward expression of his power.

So the Roman emperors accepted diadem. First, apparently, she had the appearance of her Hellenistic prototype.

But it is clear that the white bandage was already too simple to personify power (recall the magnificent golden wreaths with stones). So, almost immediately, the diadem begins to be embroidered with pearls and jewelry.

And then more - from an embroidered ribbon, the diadem becomes a complex type-setting decoration, where individual segments were strung on two cords, and the ends of these cords, as in the prototype, were tied at the back of the head. This can be seen from the imperial portraits from the coins. Of course, the image on the coin has a certain conventionality, but some show the four ends of the two cords of the diadem in great detail. Subsequently, these ends of the cords changed their function and became one of the important additions to the imperial crown.

Coin depicting Emperor Constantius II

So. The diadem was formed from separate plates (round and square) in combination with large pearls. The central plate, located above the forehead, was, as a rule, larger and often additionally decorated with pearls on top.
Basically, diadems were combined in two versions.
In the first case, the plates were interspersed with two pearls, most often tear-shaped:

Diadem of the first type (drawing by the author)

In the second case, the plates were connected to each other, and pearl threads framed them from above and below:

Tiara of the second type (drawing by the author)

The shape of the diadem evolved quite quickly (as by the standards of antiquity) and began to change after a generation. But more on that in the next post.

* Extracts on the manners and life of the Roman emperors. Chapter XXXV, 5
** Aurelius Victor. About the Caesars. Chapter XXXIX, 2
*** Ammianus Marcellinus. Roman history. Book XX. 4.17.

Notes: the title image is a bronze head of Constantine the Great from the National Gallery of Belgrade (Serbia). Next: two medallions with the profile of Constantine.

The crown, its image symbolizes the deity, the Sun, beauty; life, dignity, glory, honor, reputation; victory, reward, pride, monarchy, empire, kingship, primacy, high protection, wealth, superiority, power, strength, supremacy. Medieval Europe, as patchwork quilt, consisted of small and not very, kingdoms. And every self-respecting king had a personal crown.

Crown of laurel leaves. Late 4th - early 3rd century BC e. Gold. Length 30 cm.
Etruria. Funerary decoration "Crown from Chiusi".
British Museum London.

The oldest known Christian crown in Europe is the Iron Crown of Lombardy (Crown of Ferrea), kept in the Cathedral of Monza near Milan, capital of Lombardy.

Iron Crown of Lombardy. About 5th century.

It was made from nails knocked down from a cross and was adorned with gold and precious stones. This crown was worn by rulers for about a thousand years. Like all other crowns of Christian rulers, this crown can be called a diadem, since it was small, round, without arches and coverings. Stones and jewelry were attached directly to the metal circle that formed the basis of the crown.

Votive crown of King Recesvint. Mid 7th c.

Crown of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), Secular Treasure Chamber, Vienna. About 960 - 980 years.

(left view)
The crown of Charlemagne (German: Reichskrone) is the crown of the kings and emperors of the Roman Empire, which was used to crown almost all German monarchs of the early Middle Ages, starting with Conrad II. It was made for Emperor Otto I the Great or for his son Otto II as co-emperor in the second half of the 10th century, possibly in the workshops of the Benedictine abbey in Reichenau or in Milan, most likely at the end of the 10th century. The first mention of it appeared in the XII century.

Square crown 1000 - 1400 years.

Sacred Crown of Saint Stephen (Istvan). Gold, sapphires, precious stones, pearls; cloisonné enamel. National Museum Budapest.

"Greek crown" - of Byzantine origin, was brought as a gift to Hungary by the Byzantine emperor Michael VII Duka (1071 - 1078). One of the national relics of the Hungarian people. Such appearance it acquired thanks to American soldiers that at the end of the Second World War they took out part of the national relics of Hungary and returned only in the seventies.

Crown of Constantine IX Monomakh. 11th c. Gold, enamel. National Museum. Budapest. He loved himself so much that even his face was made on the crown.

Crown from the decor of the reliquary of St. Elizabeth of Thuringia. Gold, precious stones; filigree. State Historical Museum. Stockholm.
Elizabeth of Hungary, Elizabeth of Thuringia (1207 - 1231, Marburg), - a princess from the Hungarian Arpad dynasty, daughter of the Hungarian king Andras II, Landgraves of Thuringia, Catholic saint.

The crown is a reliquary of Saint Louis. 13th century Silver, gems; gilding. Louvre. Paris. France. It was given by Saint Louis to the Dominican monks of Liege. Saint Louis IX (1214 - 1270) - King of France since 1226.

Crown of Saint Wenceslas - royal crown Czech (Bohemian) kings. It was made by order of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, who was also the king of the Czech Republic (Bohemia).
The crown was made in 1347 for the coronation of Charles IV, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, which he immediately dedicated to the main patron saint of the country - St. Wenceslas and bequeathed it as a state crown for the coronation of future Czech kings, his heirs on the Czech throne.

Palatinate crown, Bridal crown Blanche. 1370 - 1380. Gold; pearls, sapphires, rubies, diamonds; enamel, filigree, inlay.
Treasury Munich.

Crown of King Christian IV of Denmark (1596).

The Crown of the Austrian Empire was originally the personal crown of Emperor Rudolf II. Therefore, it is also known as the crown of Rudolf II. The crown is decorated with precious stones: spinels, zircons and pearls.

The crown of Rudolph II was made in 1602 in Prague by Jean Vermeyen, one of the most prominent goldsmiths of the time, who was specially called from Antwerp. The crown consists of three parts: a crown, a high arc, and a miter.