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Long short and flat bones. Types of bones

The bone area, where the diaphiism goes into the epiphysis, is isolated as Mt and F and Z, Metaphysis. On the outer form, the bones are long, short, flat and mixed. The bones that have a significant amount and experiencing the load in many directions consist mainly from the spongy substance. Bone has a complex structure and chemical composition. For example, the body of the vertebral in shape (both in structure) refers to the spongy bones, arc, processes - to flat.

Therefore, it is more correct to distinguish between the 3 principles on which any anatomical classification should be built: forms (buildings), functions and development. I. Tubular bones. They are built from a spongy and compact substance that form a pipe with bone marrow cavity; Perform all 3 skeletal functions (support, protection and movement).

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IV. Mixed bones (bones of the base of the skull). Mixed bones can be attributed to the clavicle that develops part endlessly, part of the endoondrel. Each epiphysis has a joint surface, Fades Articuldris, coated with articular cartilage, which serves to connect with adjacent bones.

X-rayanatomy bones

This area corresponds to the epiphyseal finishing in postnatal ontogenesis. The tubular bones make up the skeleton of the limbs, perform the functions of the levers. Allocate the bones of long (shoulder, femoral, bones of forearm and lower legs) and short (milling, tie, phalange of fingers). Short (spongy) bone, OS BREVE, has the shape of an incorrect cube or a polyhedron.

Flat (wide) bones, Ossa Plana, are involved in the formation of body cavities and also perform the function of protection (bones of the roof of the skull, pelvic bones, chest, ribs). Abnormal (mixed) bones, Ossa Irregularia, are built difficult, their form is diverse. These include some skull bones: frontal, wedge-shaped, lattice, top jaw. On the surfaces of each bone there are irregularities: the muscles and their tendons, fascia, ligaments begin or attaching or attached.

In places of passage through the bone of the vessel or nerve, a canal, canalis, canadian, canaliculus, gap, fissura, clipping, inclsura are formed. On the surface of each bone, especially from the inner side, dot holes that go deep into the bones are visible, prepare holes, ForaMina Nutricia. Rounded epiphysis, eliminated from body bones, Collum, is called head (CDPut head, Capitulum head).

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The predominance of organic substances (in children) provides it with greater elasticity, elasticity. With a change in the ratio towards the predominance of inorganic substances, the bone becomes breaking, fragile (in old people). The outer layer of the compact substance of the bone is formed by the outer surrounding plates. The inner bone layer, which limits the bone marrow cavity and covered with endostost, is represented by internal surrounding plates.

Nervous fibers and vessels are branched in the bone marrow. In the bone marrow cavity of the tubular bones, there is a yellow bone marrow, Medulla Ossium FIDVA, which is a reborn reticular stroma with fat inclusions. A compact bone substance consisting of concentrically located bone plates is well developed in the bones performing the function of the support and the role of levers (tubular bones).

The compact substance of spongy (short) and epiphesis of tubular bones on radiographs is represented by a narrow light strip. The features of the bone structure are noted in accordance with the professional affiliation. Sesamovoid bones are located near the joints, participating in their education and contributing to the movements in them, but they are not directly related to the skeleton bones.

Watching a person's figure at the initial position, you can note the pronounced division of it on the main elements: Torchishche , in turn, from the pelvic, lumbar and thoracic parts; head with Sheay ; Upper and lower limb . In this case, all bones are arranged symmetrically relative to the vertical plane passing through the middle of the body. Almost all dice paired. The exception is the vertebral, the yard and the lower jaw, which are located in the middle line of the body. Separate pair bone - asymmetric, and the unpaired is symmetrical.

All skeleton bones 206 are 170 pair and 36 unpaired. Distinguish the following bones: tubular, wide, spongy, flat and mixed.

- Tubular bones Built from the spongy and compact substance that form a pipe with bone marrow cavity, perform all three functions of the skeleton (support, protection, movement). Of them long tubular bones (shoulder, forearm, thigh, shin) are racks and long movement levers; short tube bones (Pyat, plus, phalanxes) represent short movement levers. It should be noted that internal structure The tubular bones fully corresponds to the openwork drawing of the Eiffel Tower.

Among spongy bones distinguish long spongy bones (ribs and chest) and short (vertebrae, wrist, reply). Spring bones include seismovoid bones . similar to seismic grains of plants Sing (knee cup, pea bone); The functions of them are auxiliary devices for muscle operation. Sesamovoid bones are located near the joints, participating in their education and contributing to their movements, but the skeleton bones are not directly connected.

- Flat bones Skulls (frontal and dark). The function is predominantly protective. Are covered bones.

Flat bones of belts (blade, pelvic bones). Functions - support and protection.

- Mixed bones - Bones of the base of the skull.

Long bones Mostly located along the axis of the limbs. Flat bones have the form of bone plates. Short bones Are in the middle central part of the skeleton and in the end parts of the limbs are forming more or less cubic.

Muscles, ligaments attached to the bones, vessels and nerves, adjacent to them impose their own prints on the bone, forming various exchange, bugorki, grooves, canals, holes, protrusions, ridges, accelers, hollows, pits, grooves, canals, passages.

In chemical, the bone consists of two substances: organic (Ossein) - 30% and inorganic (Mineral salts) - 70%. Ossein reports the bones of elasticity, and mineral salts are hardness. As part of mineral salts there are calcium salts (lime), salt phosphoric acid and etc.

The bone strength of the tensile is equal to the roughness of the cast iron and many times the strength of the most solid tree species. The femoral bone, set up vertically, withstands the pressure of the cargo in one and a half tons, and the tibial - in 1600-1800 kg.

LITERATURE

1. Barchai E. Anatomy for artists. - Budapest, 1984.

2. Gytest of the city of plastic anatomy. - T. 1. - Bucharest, 1963.

3. Duval M. Anatomy for artists. - M., 1998.

4. Mechanic N.S. Basics plastic Anatomy. - M., 1958.

5. Pavlov G.M., Pavlova V.N. Plastic anatomy. - M., 1967.


Skeleton head. Skull, its separation
On a brain skull and facial.
Skuts roof skulls. FACIAL ANGLE

Exterior form man's head is extremely complex and diverse, but at the same time its structure is based on the same for all objects anatomical, structural structure that determines general plastics its forms, regardless of individual traits concrete person. In the construction of the head reflects its inner design - the structure of the bones of the skull and muscles located on it.

Skeleton head – skull - formed by two parts closely interconnected: 1 - upper back, consisting of flat bones and called brain skull ; 2 - the front-bottom part consisting of numerous bones very complex form, called facial skull . The brain skull consists of eight bones forming the cavity in which the brain is located. The facial skull form fourteen bones and there are external organs of feelings, breathing and nutrition.

Brain skull.Bones are involved in the formation of the brain skull: frontal (front), dark (steam room, at the top); occipital (rear); temporal (pair, side parts), wedge-shaped and lattice (basic).

Frontal bone Makes up the front department of the brain skull, downstairs forms the top edge of the orders - "Non-chassion". The most notable formations of this bone affecting the form of the forehead are frontal bugs , abrasion Dougi. and located between them a deepening referred to outpotable (Glabell).

The side edge of the surface of the forehead is easily torn temple line . Continuing from the outside, the frontal bone on the right and on the left forms for the process that go to the zick bone and are called Zkulovy . The frontal bone is unpaired. Its scales are laid by the embryo of two half - right and left.

Frontal bugs are at the junction of three surfaces: middle forehead plane, side Intermediate planes of forehead and Upper Plane, which is the beginning of the skull vest. The frontal bumps are sharp pronounced in children, they are stronger in women than men.

Abrasion Dougi. Men more dramatically expressed than women and children.


Fig. 3. Bones and seams of skulls:

A - lateral norm, b - facial rate, V - vertical norm:

1 - frontal bone, 2 - dark bone, 3 - occipital bone, 4 - temporal bone,
5 - Wedge-shaped bone, 6 - nasal bone, 7 – cheekbone,

8 - maxillary bone, 9 - Vessenus seam, 10 - sweat-shaped seams,

11 - lambdoid seam.


B - the occipital bone (rear view and below),

G - occipital bone (view on the right and above):

1 - occipital scales, 2 - occipital bone, 3 - a large hole, 4 - occipital soda, 5 - outdoor occipital exaltation, 6 - outline lines;

D - parietal bone (view on the right and top):

1 - Dark Budgor, 2 - Growing edge, 3 - scaly edge, 4 - Sagittal edge, 5 - front edge, 6 - upper and lower temporal lines.


Fig. five. Bones of the base of the skull:

A - wedge-shaped bone (bottom view), b - lattice bone (rear view).

Temple line Determines the boundary between the side and front intermediate surfaces of the forehead, and then, continuing, becomes the boundary of the top and side surfaces of the roof of the skull.

Parietal bone. This bone forms a noticeable protrusion, referred to dark hill. They give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe width of the skull. Dark bugs lie at the junction of three surfaces: top, side and rear. More clearly act in children than adults. Each of the dark

bone has four edges. On the median line, the right and left dark bones are connected to each other, forming shoot. Outside and from below, the dark bone is connected to the temporal and wedge-shaped bones. On the parietal bone continues the temporal line, which is used here on the upper and lower, walking in parallel to the meeting with a dark bug.

Occipital bone. This bone is rear wall Skull. Most of the bone - scales, facing back and down their outer surface. Its foundation is connected to the first vertebra (Atlanta) with two joints (sumpers), which are located on the sides of the occipital opening. The most speaking formation of this bone is outdoor occipital elevation from which to the right and left novel lines - Place attaching powerful muscles of the neck.

It should be noted that the frontal, two dark and occipital bones are the main parts of the roof of the skull.

In addition to the swamp suture, the bones of the skull form coronal suture - between the frontal and dark bones, lambdoid seam - between the occipital and dark bones.

Temporal bone Participates in the formation of the bottom-glass wall of the brain skull. Its scales is a bone plate connecting with a dark bone by the so-called Scaly seam. This bone forms an outer hearing aid and an outer hearing aisle, behind which located behind the ear shell well developed mastoid. In front of the outer hearing aid, another process is tested, referred to as skylovy. At the base of the zylovogo process, you can find a tubercle, called joint . There is a deepening between the outer hearing aisle and this bumpster. joint Jamb which serves to articate with the head of the mandibular bone.

Sphenoid bone The skull occupies the middle part in its lower wall. This bone has a complex structure and is divided into the body and three pairs of processes, of which the greatest, referred to big wing This bone is facing in outdoor side And participates in the formation of the side wall of the skull. The wedge-shaped bone in an adult is growing with the occipital bone, and together make up one common bone, referred to main because It is located in the center of the base of the skull.

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Plastic anatomy

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Lecture course
Vitebsk Publisher UO "VSU them. P.M. Masherova "2006 UDC 7 (075.8) BBK 85.100.62Я73 p61

The value of plastic anatomy.
1) gives you the opportunity to identify the features of the structure of the human body and tie it with character characteristics, traits: a) the psychology of the portrait, where the form is building in nature; b) Communication

Planes and axes of human figures. Anatomical terminology.
Building a human figure should be based on the system of axes and planes, respectively, the system of rectangular coordinates. They allow you to correctly "put" the figure, make a number of characteristic "SECH

The general concept of the skeleton (osteology).
All motor vehicle man, his support and movement organs, it is customary to divide into passive, educated skeleton and its compounds and active,

Bones of facial turtle
The maxillary bone is a steam room, forms the lower inner surface of the orbit. It has a body of approximately triangular shape and four processes. Front body surface

Mr. P P A A. Muscles of the roof of the skull and the circumference of the eye.
The superior muscle is divided into three parts: the frontal abdomen (frontal muscle), a tendon helmet and a bolting abdomen (occipital muscle), which has a small

Plastic eye.
Eye expressiveness is also rich as rich independent state man. In the eyes reflects pain and joy, laughter and grief, horror and indifference, loyalty and meanness, anger and kindness. Therefore, law

Plastic nose.
And the rigid base of the nose is the nasal bones at the top and the edge of the pear-like opening of the top

Plastic ear.
In plastic anatomy, the outdoor ear to which belongs auricle And the outer hearing pass. The basis of the ears R.

Plastic mouth.
The river hole is framed upper and lower lubs, the main spatial shape of which is due to the horseshoe form of bones of the upper and lower jaws, on which the circular mouse is located

Plastic cheeks.
The rounded surface of the cheek is divided into three sections formed by peculiar fractures of the zimo and actually chewing muscles: I. Frontal part (1) cheeks

Joints.
All the bones of the skeleton are interconnected or continuously, without the formation of cavities between the connecting bones - synartrosis, or is intermittent, with the formation of cavities -

Types of joints.
Distinguish next species Joints: ball-shaped, ellipsed, sadded, cylindrical, block-shaped and flat. The axis of rotation is called mentally about

Plastic pelvis.
Pelvic belt or belt lower limb Formed by a single bone of the pelvic (nameless). This bone, in turn, consists of three bones: iliac, pubic

Vertebral pole.
A vertebral pole is attached to the pension, which consists of separate vertebrae and intervertebral disks between them. Distinguish seven, twelve chest

The bends of the spinal column.
The vertebral pillar forms the bends facing ahead, back and sides. The bends of the cervical I. lumbar departments Vertem Art

Rib cage.
Closed space chest Educated twelve steam edges, movably connected from behind with vertebrae, and in front - with sternum. Each edge consists of

Shoulder girdle.
On the chest from above, the bones of the shoulder belt consisting of two clavies and two blades. The shoulder belt serves as a support for the upper limbs. Kurazitsa Present S.

Sustaines of the free upper limb.
The shoulder joint belongs to the largest and most important joints. It features the following movements: flexion, extension, lead, bringing, turning inside (pronation) and turn

Skeleton free lower limb
The femoral bone is the largest in human tele. It belongs to the long tubular bones and has the body and two ends, proximal and distal. Body femoral bone them

Connections of the bones of the lower limb.
Pelvic bones, connecting with a sacrum, form right and left sacrats and iliac connections. The possibility of mobility in this joint is very small.

General doctrine on muscles (myiology). Plastic Anatomy of Neck and Tog's Muscles
The system of bones, muscles and tendons forms a movable guithing1 system, managed consciously or instinctively. Muscles carry out the movement of the body and its parts, as well as fixing them different

Plastic Anatomy of Neck
The upper boundary of the neck is carried out along the lower edge of the mandibular bone, then up the rear edge of its branch and continues approximately horizontally through the outer hearing pass, along the line that goes to

Front neck.
Podium bone is the place of attaching a number of muscles that shift her down the book and upstairs, and at the same time they shift and attaching to subject bone Domestic Organs - Lanes, Drop

Front of the body of the body
The largest muscle of the front surface breast Department The body is a big breast muscle, which largely determines the form of this department. Muscle consists of

Rear torso surface.
From large muscles located on the rear surface of the body for body shape the greatest value There are trapezoid, wide backs, spinal rectifier (sacral-oest),

Plastic anatomy of the muscles of the upper limb.
Before we consider the muscles of the limbs, it should be noted the characteristic functional feature This section of the anatomy. This feature is that the muscles on one

Forearm flayners.
Biceps. Her two heads start from the blade and go out of the big breastpus. This muscle descends on the forearm, where her tendon goes into the elbow pamper and attached

Muscles of the forearm.
There are two main muscle groups on the forearm, of which one begins in the field of internal screwdriver shoulder bone, goes to the front (palm) surface of the forearm and is

Front band
Touring the thigh muscle takes almost all his front surface. As the muscle name itself shows, it has four heads wearing separate names. Three of these heads

Internal group.
The thrust muscles, located on its inner surface, include several muscles: swamp, iliac-lumbar, long leading, gentle. Most

Rear group.
The largest muscle of the back side of the area of \u200b\u200bthe hip joint is a superficially lying large jagical muscle. It starts from the outer surface of the ileum

Rear group.
It is significantly more powerful than the front and outdoor groups. This is due to the large function that rear group Performs when standing, walking, running, jumping, holding when standing bodies

Muscles of the foot.
Divided into two groups: rear and soles. The back muscle group consists of a short finger extensor and

Positions and movement of the body.
Of the variety of movements and positions, positions and movements are distinguished - symmetric and asymmetric. The first is characterized by the fact that both half of the body, both the right and left, are in one

Center of gravity.
To preserve the equilibrium of the body, it is necessary that the vertical of the general center of gravity of the body took place inside its support area. General center of gravity of the body, i.e. point of application all

Body proportions.
The teaching about the proportions of the body has a great practical value for the artist. This teaching contains materials by comparison with which is facilitated by finding individual features Each given

Support and Anatomical Points Figure Man
By reference points, the position of the figure in the space and its proportional system is determined. They seem to serve as initial lighthouses for building a drawing, taking into account the promising cuts and allow

Axis figures of man
The main guide lines, axis vertically standing on both legs of the figure, have such provisions: the pelvis line is tilted forward, the abdomen - vertically, chest - back, neck - forward, and head

Lecture course
Corrector L.V. Conflector computer nabbeck

The formation of any bone occurs due to young connective tissue cells of mesenchymal origin - osteoblasts that produce an intercellular bone substance playing the main supporting role. Accordingly, the 3 stages of the development of the skeleton of the bone can develop on the basis of connecting or cartilage tissue, therefore the following types of ossification (osteogenesis) differ.

1. Endesmal ossification(EN - inside, DESME - a bunch) occurs in the connective tissue of primary, coating, bones (Fig. 8). On a certain portion of embryonic connective tissue, having the outline of the future bone, thanks to the activity of osteoblasts, the omnants of the bone substance appear (point of ossification). From the Primary Center, the process of ossification is distributed in all directions as possible by imposing (apposition) of the bone substance along the periphery. The surface layers of the connective tissue, from which the coating bone is formed, remain in the form of periosteum, from which the bone increases in the thickness.

2. Perichondralian oshenation(Peri - around, chondros - cartilage) either walks on the outer surface of the cartilage of the dice with the participation of the schirling (Perichondrium). The mesenchymal descendant having the outline of the future bone turns into the "bone" consisting of a cartilage tissue and represents a cartilaginous bone model. Thanks to the activities of Osteoblasts of the sample, covering the cartilage outside, the bone tissue, which gradually replaces the fabric cartilage, is postponed on its surface, which gradually replaces the cloth or forms a compact bone substance.

3. With the transition of the cartilage model of the bone to the bone schirling, it becomes periosteum and further deposition of bone tissue goes at the expense of the periostess - periostal ossification. Therefore, perichond-rally and periosteal osteogenesis follow one after another.

4. Endochondralyan ossification (Endo, Greek. - Inside, Chondros - cartilage) is performed inside the cartilaginous adventures with the participation of the superior, which gives the processes containing the vessels inside the cartilage. Penetrating into the depths of cartilage along with the vessels, the costh formation fabric destroys the cartilage, pre-exposed by occasion (deposition in the cartel of the lime and rebirth of its cells), and forms in the center of the cartilage model of the bone of the island of bone tissue (point of ossification). The distribution of the process of endochondral osenation from the center to the periphery leads to the formation of the spongy bone substance. There is not a direct transformation of cartilage into the bone, but its destruction and substitution new clothbone.

So, first on the 2nd month of the morning life, primary points arise, of which the main parts of the bones, carrying the greatest load, i.e., body, or diaphysies, diaphysis, tubular bones (Dia, Greek, Phyo - Rasta; part of the bone growing between epiphyses) and diaphysis ends, called metaphysm, Metaphysis (Meta - behind, after). They are soldered through peri- and endochondral osteogenesis. Then shortly before birth or in the early years after birth, secondary points appear, of which they are formed by endochondral osteogenesis of the bone ends involved in joints, i.e. epiphysis, epiphysis (outgrowth, epi-above), tubular bones. The focus core of the core emerged in the center of the cartilaginous epiphyse is growing and becomes bone epiphysis constructed from the spongy substance. From the initial cartilage tissue remains only a thin layer of it on the surface of the epiphyse, forming articular cartilage. In children, young men and even adults, the addition islands of ossification appear, of which the parts of the bone, experiencing craving due to the attachment of muscles and ligaments, called apophysia, Apophysis (process, ARO - from): for example, a large thigh bone or additional points on Through the process of lumbar vertebrae, fascinating only in adults. The nature of the ossification associated with the structure of the bone is also functionally determined. So, the bones and parts of the bones consisting mainly of the spongy bone substance (vertebrae, the bustle, the bones of the wrist and the epiphesis of tubular bones et al.), Oveaken Endochondraral-but, and bones and parts of the bones, built at the same time from the spongy and compact substance ( The base of the skull, the diaphysis of tubular bones, etc.), develop by endo and perichondral osenation. A number of human bones is the product of the confluence of bones, independently existing in animals. Reflecting this process of fusion, the development of such bones occurs at the expense of foci of ossification, corresponding to its number and location of the number of spilled bones. Thus, the human shoulder blade develops from 2 bones involved in the shoulder belt of the lower ground vertebrates (blades and shore). Accordingly, in addition to the main cores of focus in the body of the blades, there are foci of ossification in its beak process (former shrocide). The temporal bone, struggling from 3 bones, wores out of 3 groups of bone nuclei. Thus, the ossification of each bone reflects the functionally determined process of philogenesis.

1.Andomatomy as a science: subject to study, tasks and methods of anatomy, connection with other sciences. The concept of the body, system of organs and the apparatus of organs.

Anatomy (from Gosch. Anatome - cutting, dismembering) - Science, which studies the structure of the body of the animal in the process individual Development.

Like science It reveals the patterns of the structure of the organism of animals, due to the function and factors of the surrounding environment. Forms the skills of medical thinking and observation. Makes the foundation for the diagnosis of a number of deviations in the development of the body and its diseases.

Anatomyconnected With physiology (functional), ecology (ecological morphology), palateontology and embryology (comparative and age), cytology and histology (microscopic).

Methods:

anatomical preparation, radiography, production of corrosion anatomical preparations, microscopy of whole organs and their sections, biomechanical (based on mathematics and physics data, such as ultrasound), endoscopy (gastroscopy, esophagoscopy), experiment - modeling various situations occurring in the body, through various situations genus interventions.

Tasks: 1. The design of the structure, forms, positions of the organs and their relationship, taking into account the age, genital and individual characteristics of the human body. 2. Increased interdependencies of the structure and form of organs with their functions. 3. Creating the laws of the body of the body as a whole and the components of its parts.

Organ- This is part of the body having a limit, shape and structure that occupies a certain place in the body and perform a specific function. . Internal organs It is customary to share on systems. The digestive, respiratory, urinary and sexual system is distinguished, each of which is a complex of different organs on the structure of organs performing a certain function together. In structure, the internal organs are hollow and parenchymal. Hollow organs have overall plan Buildings, whereas in parenchymathous, specific structural-functional units (acinus, nephron, hepatic slices, etc. can be distinguished.

2.Anatomical nomenclature. Planes and axes of human body. Terms used to designate the position of points or lines in these planes, organs and parts of human body limbs.

To refer to the position of the human body in space, the location of its parts relative to each other uses the concepts of planes and axes. The initial is considered to be the position of the body, when a person stands, legs together, palms are turned forward. A person, like other vertebrates, was built on the principle of bilateral (bilateral) symmetry, the body is divided into two halves - the right and left. The border between them is median (median) plane,located vertically and front-round oriented back in the sagittal direction (from Lat. Sagitta - Arrow). This plane is also called sagittal.

Sagittal planeseparates the right half of the body (right - dexter.) from left (left - sinister). Vertical plane, oriented perpendicular to the sagittal and separating the front of the body (front - ante.-, riOR.) from the rear (rear - pOS.­ terior.), called frontal(from Lat. FRONS - forehead). This plane in its direction corresponds to the forehead plane. As synonyms, the terms "front" and "rear" in determining the position of the authorities can be used accordingly, the terms "abdominal", or "ventral" (ventralis.), "Spinal", or "Dorsal" (dorsalis).

Horizontal planeoriented perpendicular to the previous two and separates the underlying body departments (Lower inferior.) from the overlying (top - superior.).

These three planes: sagittal, frontal and horizontal - can be carried out through any point of the human body; The number of planes may be arbitrary. Accordingly, the planes include directions (axis), which allow you to orient the organs relative to the position of the body. Vertical axis(vertical - verticalis) directed along the body standing man. On this axis there are a vertebral pillar and organs lying along it (spinal cord, thoracic and abdominal part of aortic, breast duct, esophagus). The vertical axis coincides with longitudinal axis(longitudinal - longitudinalis.), which is also oriented along the human body, regardless of its position in space, or along the limbs (leg, hand), or along the organ, the long dimensions of which are dominated over others. Frontal (transverse) axis(transverse - tRANSVERSUS., transversdlis) in the direction coincides with the frontal plane. This axis is focused on the right left or left to right. Sagittal axis(Sagittal - sagittalis) located in the front seat, as well as the sagittal plane.

To determine the projection of the borders of the organs (heart, lungs, pleura, etc.) on the surface of the body conditionally carry out vertical lines oriented along the human body. Front median line,linea. mediana. anterior., it takes place along the front surface of the human body, on the border between the right and left half. Rear median linelinea. mediana. poste.­ riOR., it goes along the spinal column, over the vertices of spinning processes. There are several more lines through anatomical formation on the surface of the body on each side. Sodden linelinea. sternalis, goes around the edge of the sternum, middle-hearted linelinea. medioclavicularis., passes through the middle of the clavicle, often coincides with the position of the nipple of the breast, in connection with which it is also called linea. mammildris - nipple line. Front axillary linelinea. axillaris. anterior., begins from the fold of the same name (prica. axillaris. anterior.) in the area of \u200b\u200bthe axillary yam and go along the body. Middle axillary linelinea. axillaris. media., begins from the deep point of the axillary pits, rear axillary linelinea. axillaris. posterior, - from the fold of the same name (prica. axillaris. posterior). Blank line,linea. scapuldris., passes through the lower corner of the blade, occupatic line,linea. paravertebralis, - along the spinal column through the rib-transverse joints (transverse vertebral processes). The position of body parts relative to the main axes and planes is indicated by special terms. The main ones are as follows: medial - located closer to the median axis, internal; lateral - located further from the median axis, side, outdoor; cranial - located in the direction of the head, skull; caudal - located in the opposite direction, tail; dorzali - located on the rear, spinal side; ventral - Located on the front, abdominal side. With regard to the limbs use the terms: proximal - lying closer to the body and distal-Other further from the body. For example, the shin in relation to the foot is proximal, and in relation to the thigh.

3. Perhaps as an organ: function, structure, types of ossification, rising bones. Classification of bones.

Each bone,it is an independent body and consists of bone tissue. Outside the bone is covered perceiversinside her B. bone marrow cavitythere is a bone marrow. The bones are varied in size and shape, occupy a certain position in the body. For convenience, study distinguish the following groups Bones: Long (tubular), short (spongy), flat (wide), abnormal (mixed), air.

Tubular bones: serve long durable levers, due to which a person can move in space or lifting gravity. Tubular bones include shoulder bones, forearm, hips and lower legs. The growth of tubular bones is completed by 20-25 years.

Sponge bones: basically carry support function. Sponge bones include bones of vertebral bones, sternum, small bones of the brush and foot.

Flat bones: perform mainly protective function. Flat bones include bones forming a skull arch.

Long(tubular) bone,he has an elongated, cylindrical or triangular form middle part - body bone, diaphim. Thickened ends are called epiphysees. Each epiphysis has a joint surface, covered with articular cartilage, which serves to connect with adjacent bones. The bone area, where the diaphiism passes to the epiphis, is isolated as metaphis. This area corresponds to the epiphyseal finishing in postnatal ontogenesis. The tubular bones make up the skeleton of the limbs, perform the functions of the levers. Allocate the bones of long (shoulder, femoral, bones of forearm and lower legs) and short (milling, tie, phalange of fingers).

Short(spongy) bone,it has the shape of an incorrect cube or a polyhedron. Such bones are located in the sections of the skeleton, where the strength of the bones is combined with mobility, in compounds between the bones (wrist bones, repulsed).

Flat(wide) bones,participate in the formation of body cavities and also perform the function of protection (bone of the roof of the skull, pelvic bones, chest, ribs). At the same time, they represent extensive surfaces to attach muscles.

Abnormal(mixed) bones,built difficult, their form is diverse. For example, the body of the vertebral in shape (both in structure) refers to the spongy bones, arc, processes - to flat.

Air bonesthey have a cavity, lined mucous membrane and filled with air. These include some skull bones: frontal, wedge-shaped, lattice, upper jaw.

Development and growth of bones. In the process of individual development, as in phylogenesis, the skeleton runs three stages: connective tissue

(mesenchymal), cartilage and bone. Bones arising in mesenchym are called primaryor pokrovny(bones roof skull). Most bones develop through the cartilage stage they are called secondaryor replacing.

On the second month of intrauterine life, a human skeleton is a cartilage education. The cartilage skeleton of a human embryo in its rude forms is similar to fossil skeletons of ancient amphibians. It shows not all the bones, for example, at the base of the skull, the arch is not formed, there are no many bones of the facial department - the coating bones will also develop here later. It is essential that embryonic cartilage does not turn into a bone, and it is replaced by it.

Distinguish ossification intricureor anchondralnoyeand perichondralnoyein which the bone tissue appears first on the surface of the cartilage, under the surface covering it (Fig. 1.4)

Points showing parts, incubating enchondrelly; transverse hatching - perichondrelly; white - cartilage, black - bone marrow champion

An enchondral osenation occurs inside the cartilage adventures. The bones consisting mainly of the spongy substance (vertebrae, chestnuts, etc.) develop enchondrelly, and consisting of spongy and compact substances - en- and perichondrel.

In the future, all new and new layers of bone tissue are increasing on the bone surface, which ensures the growth of bones in thickness. Simultaneously inside the bone through the destruction (resorption) of its spongy substance formed a bone-brain cavity. The growth of long bone diaphysis in length is due to epiphyseal growth plates,the layers of cartilage between the epiphysis and the diaphysia, which remains during the entire period of childhood and youth. Epiphysis of long bones remain cartilage for a long time, and enchondral foci of ossification consistently appear in them only during the first decade.

The offensive of the physical maturity of a person is expressed by the completion of the growth of the skeleton and the battle (synostosis) of individual foci of ossification in each bone. The development of the skeleton in men ends by 20-24 years, in women - 2-3 years earlier in connection with this, women in height stopped in 18-21 for the entire period of growth, the mass of the bone skeleton increases almost 24 times.

With the cessation of growth and the achievement of complete physical maturity, a human skeleton never ceases to change. So, to old age in bone system The relationship between the rates of the creation and destruction of bone tissue are disturbed, the bones become thinner, the articians are deformed, the bone-brain spaces and the air axle sinuses increase the sexual differences

they also affect the pace of aging of the skeleton, the first signs of which women come before (starting from 45-50 years).

Environmental factors affect the formation of bones. Skeleton mineralization level in considerable degree associated with diet. It is so proved that children who are on diet, poor proteins, fats and minerals have more low level Skeleton mineralization than their peers with normal nutrition. Mineral failure and, as a result, osteoporosis, or bone racing, is especially expressed in areas where desalinated water is used for drinking. Heavy diseases, lack of vitamins and minerals, impaired range of glands internal secretion Also delay the growth and development of the skeleton. Under the conditions of the highlands, an increase in the bone cerebral cavity is developing and a decrease in the area of \u200b\u200bthe compact substance of the bone. This feature is due to an increase in the hematopoietic activity of the bone marrow in the conditions of high-mountain hypoxia.

4. Classification of bone compounds. Continuous bone connections. The structure of the joint. Auxiliary formations in the joints. Classification of joints in the form of articular surfaces, the number of axes of movement and function.

There are two main types of bone compounds: continuousand interruptedor sustaines(Fig. 1.7, see atl.). Continuous compounds are available in all lower vertebrates and in the embryonic stages of development from higher education. When the latter are formed bone laying, their starting material (connecting tissue, cartilage) is preserved between them. With the help of this material there is a bones, i.e. A continuous connection is formed. Interrupted

compounds are developing at the later stages of ontogenesis in terrestrial vertebrates and are more perfect, as they provide more differentiated mobility parts of the skeleton. They develop due to the occurrence of cracks in source materialpreserved between the bones. In the latter case, the cutting remains cover the articular surfaces of the bones. There is another third, intermediate type of compounds - polishing.

Continuous connections there are between the bones of the skull, the pelvis. Between the connecting bones there is a thin layer of connective tissue or cartilage. Connections of the bones of the roof and the facial skull department call seams. Seam seams are isolated when the edge shape is the edge of one bone of the roof of the skull.

There are three groups of continuous bone connections - fibrous, cartilage and bone. I. Fibrous bone compounds, or connections using connective tissue, - syndesmos. These include bundles, membranes, springs, seams and propellations. Bundles are compounds using connective tissue, having a view of bunches of collagen and elastic fibers. In terms of its structure, ligaments with the predominance of collagen fibers are called fibrous, and bundles containing predominantly elastic fibers, elastic. Unlike fibrous, elastic ligaments are able to shorten and return to the initial form after stopping the load. The length of the fibers of the ligament can be long (rear and front longitudinal vertebral ligaments, an overwhelming bunch) connecting several bones at a high outrest, and short connecting bones (interstrate, inter-line ligaments and most bones of limb bones). In relation to the joint capsule, intra-articular and embracing ligaments are distinguished. The latter are considered both extracure and capsular. Bundles as an independent type of bone connection can perform various functions:

holding or fixing (sacral-borne bunding, sacral-oest, interstitial, interoperachnic bundles, etc.);

the role of a soft skeleton, as they are the site of the beginning and attachment of the muscles (most of the ligaments of the limbs, vertebral ligaments, etc.);

forming when they together with bones form arches or holes for the passage of vessels and nerves (top transverse bundle of the blade, pelvic bundles, etc.).

Membranes are compounds using connective tissue, having a type of intercourse membrane filling in contrast to ligaments extensive intervals between the bones. Connectual fibers in the membranes, predominantly collagen, are located in such a direction that does not interfere with the movement. Their role is largely similar to the ligaments. They also hold the bones relative to each other (intercostal membranes, intercose membranes of forearm and lower legs), serve as the start of the muscles (the same membranes) and form holes for the passage of vessels and nerves (locking membrane). Rodniki is connective tissue formations with a large number of intermediate substances and rarely located collagen fibers. Spring Conditions create conditions for the bones of the skull in the process of childbirth and contribute to the intensive growth of bones after birth. The greatest size reaches the front spring (30 x 25 mm). He closes on the second year of life. Rear spring has a size of 10 x 10 mm and completely disappears by the end of the second month after birth. Yet smaller dimensions Have paired wedge-shaped and prednal springs. They overgrow before birth or in the first two weeks after birth. The spring is eliminated due to the growth of the bones of the skull and the formation of suture tissue between them. The seams are thin layers of the connective tissue, located between the bones of the skull, with the content of a large number of collagen fibers. In the form of seams there are gears, scaly and flat, they serve as a zone of growth of the bones of the skull and have a shock-absorbing effect when driving, protecting the brain, organs of vision, hearing and equilibrium from damage. Insurance - conjunction of teeth with cells of alveolar processes of jaws with a dense connective tissue having special name - Periodont. Although it is a very strong connection, it has also pronounced depreciation properties when the tooth loads. Periodontal thickness is 0.14-0.28 mm. It consists of collagen and elastic fibers, focused on the whole perpendicular to the walls of the alveoli to the root of the tooth. Between the fibers there is a loose connective tissue containing a large number of vessels and nerve fibers. With a strong compressing of the jaws, due to the pressure of the tooth-antagonist, periodontal is strongly squeezed, and the tooth is immersed in a cell to 0.2 mm. With age, the number of elastic fibers decreases, and when the periodontal load is damaged, its blood supply and innervation is disturbed, the teeth are loosened and falling out. II. Counting compounds of bones - Synchondrosis. These compounds are represented by hyalin or fibrous cartilage. Comparing the named cartilage with each other, it can be noted that hyaline cartilage is of greater elasticity, but less strength. With the help of hyaline cartilage, metaphistes and epiphysis of tubular bones and individual parts of the pelvic bone are connected. Fibrous cartilage mainly consists of collagen fibers, therefore it is highly durable and less elasticity. Such cartilaginous vertebral bodies are connected. The strength of cartilage compounds also increases due to the fact that the periosteum from one bone passes to another, without interrupting. In the field of cartilage, it turns into an outshirt, which in turn firmly struggles with cartilage and supported by ligaments. By the duration of the existence of synchbands can be permanent and temporary, i.e. existing up to a certain age, and then replacing bone tissue. In normal physiological conditions, temporary are metaeplein cartilage, cartilage between individual parts of flat bones, cartilage between the main part of the occipital and body of wedge-shaped bones. These compounds are mainly represented by hyaline cartilage. Constant are called cartilage forming intervertebral discs; Carticles located between the bones of the base of the skull (wedge-rock-rocky and wedge-shaped), and cartilage between the I edge and sternum. These compounds are represented mainly fibrous cartilage. The main purpose of the Synchondrosis is mitigating the jokes and stresses at strong loads on the bone (depreciation) and ensuring a durable bonding compound. Purchase compounds at the same time have great mobility. The volume of movements depends on the thickness of the cartilage layer: how it is more, the greater the volume of movements. As an example, a variety of movements in spinal column: sloping forward, back, on the sides, twisting, springing movements, which are especially developed in gymnasts, acrobats and swimmers. III. Connections with bone tissue - SinoThosis. These are the most durable compounds from the group of continuous, but fully lost elasticity and depreciation properties. In normal conditions, temporary synchronosis is subject to synostration. In some diseases (Bekhterev's disease, osteochondrosis, etc.) ostening can occur not only in all syncondrosis, but also in all syndesmmes.

Complete connection –diarrosisarticulation, or joint(Fig. 1.5, IN),it is characterized by a slight space (slit) between the ends of the connecting bones. Distinguish joints simpleformed by only two bones (for example, shoulder joint), complex - when the connection enters more bones (for example, elbow joint), and combinedallowing movement is only simultaneous with the movement in other anatomically diverse joints (for example, proximal and distal brave joint joints). The joint includes: articular surfaces, articular bag, or capsule, and articular cavity.

Articular surfacesconnecting bones more or less correspond to each other (congruent). On one bone, forming a joint, the articular surface is usually convex

and wears the name heads.On another bone, the corresponding head of concavity is developing - vpinaor snack.Both the head and the fossa can be formed by two or several bones. The articular surfaces are covered with hyaline cartilage, which reduces friction and facilitates movement in the joint.

Mustic bagsends to the edges of the articular surfaces of the bones and forms a hermetic articular cavity. The articular bag consists of two layers. The surface, fibrous layer, is formed by a fibrous connective tissue, merges with the perception of articular bones and carries a protective function. Internal, or synovial, layer is rich in blood vessels. It forms the growing (villi), excreasing viscous liquid - synoviawhich lubricates the articular surfaces and makes them easier. In normally functioning joints, very little synovia, for example, in the largest of them - knee - not more than 3.5 cm 3. In some joints (in the knee), the synovial shell forms the folds in which the fat is deposited, which has a protective function here. In other joints, for example, in the shoulder, the synovial sheath forms an external protrusion, over which there is almost no fibrous layer. These protruding sinovivial bagslocated in the field of attachment of the tendons and reduce friction during the movement.

Articular cavityit is called a hermetically closed slitual space, bounded by the articular surfaces of the bones and the articular bag. It is filled with synovia. In the articular cavity between the joint surfaces there is a negative pressure (below atmospheric). Atmospheric pressure tested by a capsule helps to strengthen the joint. Therefore, in some diseases, the sensitivity of the joints towards the fluctuations of atmospheric pressure increases, and such patients can "predict" changes in weather. The dense pressing of the articular surfaces to each other in a number of joints is due to the tone, or active tension of the muscles.

In addition to mandatory, auxiliary education may be found in the joint. These include articular bundles and lips, intra-articular discs, menisci and sesamovoid (from Arab, sesamo.- grain) bone.

Artistic ligamentspresent tight fibrous fabrics. They are located in the thicker or on top of the articular bag. These are local thickening of its fibrous layer. By throwing through the joint and attaching to the bones, the ligaments strengthen the articulation. However, their main role is to limit the diffusion of movement: they do not allow its transition for the well-known limits. Most of the ligaments are not elastic, but very durable. In some joints, for example in a knee, there are intra-articular bundles.

Articular lipsconsist of fibrous cartilage, ring-shaped covering edge of the articular depressions, the area of \u200b\u200bwhich they complement and increase. The articular lips attach great strength to the joint, but reduce the scope of movements (for example, shoulder joint).

Disksand meniskypresent cartilage pads - solid and with a hole. They are located inside the joint between the joint surfaces, and along the edges they grow up with the articular bag. The surfaces of the discs and meniscoves repeat the shape of the joint surfaces of the bones adjacent to them on both sides. Disks and meniscus contribute to the variety of movements in the joint. They are in the knee and the mandibular joints.

Seismovoid bonesmute and are located near some joints. Some of these bones are located in the thicker of the articular bag and increasing the area of \u200b\u200bthe articular pits, are articulated with the articular head (for example, in the joint of the thumb); Others are included in the tendons of the muscles throwing through the joint (for example, a patella, which is concluded in the tendon of the four-headed muscles of the thigh). Seismoid bones also belong to the auxiliary formations of muscles.

Athletes under the influence of training the mobility of the joints increases. In children, most of the joints are usually moveable than adults or the elderly.

Classification of joints it is based on comparing the shape of the articular surfaces with segments of various geometric rotation figures obtained from the movement of a direct or lines curve (the so-called forming) around the fixed conditional axis. Different forms of movement of the generating line give different bodies of rotation. For example, a direct forming, rotating parallel to the axis, describes the cylindrical figure, and the forming in the form of a semicircle gives a ball (Fig. 1.6). The articular surface of a certain geometric shape allows you to make movements only by the axes characteristic of this form. As a result, the joints are classified on uniaxial, biaxial and three-axle (or practically multiple).

Uniaxial jointsmay be cylindrical or blocks.

1. Long tubular (OS hips, shin, shoulder, forearm).

2. Short tubular (OS Plus, plus).

3. Short spongy (vertebral body).

4. Sponge (Ground).

5. Flat (blade).

6. Mixed (OS base of the skull, vertebrae - sponge bodies, and the processes are flat).

7. Air-capable (upper jaw, lattice, wedge-shaped).

3. Building bones.

Bone A living person is a complex organ, occupies a certain position in the body, has its own form and structure, performs the function characteristic of it.

The bone consists of fabrics:

1. Bone tissue (occupies the main place).

2. Cleaning (covers only the articular surfaces of the bone).

3. Fatty (yellow bone marrow).

4. Reticular (red bone marrow)

Outside the bone is covered with an assault.

Periosteum (or periost) - thin two-layer connective tissue plate.

The inner layer consists of loose connective tissue, in it are located osteoblasts.

They are involved in the growth of bones in the thickness and restoring its integrity after fractures. The outer layer is drawn up dense fibrous fibers. The periosteum is rich in blood vessels and nerves, which in thin bone canals penetrate into the depths, blood supply and innervating it.

Inside the bone is located bone marrow.

Bone marrowthere are two types:

1. Red

Red bone marrow - an important body of blood formation and costh formation.

Sounded by blood vessels blood elements. It is formed by a reticular tissue in which hematopoietic elements are located (stem cells), osteoclasts (destroyers), osteoblasts.

In intrauterine period And the newborn all bones contain a red bone marrow. In an adult, it is contained only in the cells of the spongy bones of the plane bones (yard, bones of the skull, iliac bones), in the spongy (short bones), epiphysees of tubular bones.

As the blood cell ripens come into the bloodstream and spread throughout the body.

The yellow bone marrow is presented mainly by fat cells and reborn cells of reticular tissue. Lipocytes give bones yellow. Yellow bone marrow is in the cavity of the diaphysis of tubular bones.

Systems of bone plates are formed from bone tissue.

If the bone plates fit tightly to each other, it turns out dense or compact bone substance.

If bone crossbars are located loosen, forming a cell, it is formed spongy bone substance that consists of a network of thin anastomossed bone elements - trabec.

Bone crossbars are not randomly randomly, but strictly naturally along the lines of compression forces and stretching.


Osteon- This is a structural unit of bone.

Osteons consist of 2-20 cylindrical plates inserted one to another, inside of which passes (gaverns) channel. The lymphatic vessel, the artery and vein passes through it, which are branched to the capillaries and are suitable for the lacunas of the Gaverc system. They provide admission and outflow nutrients, Metabolism products, CO 2 and 2.

On the outside I. internal surfaces bones, bone plates do not form concentric cylinders, and arrange around them. These areas are permeated with folkmann channels, through which blood vessels pass, which are connected to the vessels of the gaverc channels.

Live bone contains 50% water, 12.5% \u200b\u200bof protein organic substances (Ossein and Osseomukoid), 21.8% of inorganic mineral substances (mainly calcium phosphate) and 15.7% fat.

Organic substances are caused elasticity bones, and inorganic - hardness.

Tubular bones consist of body (diaphysis)and two ends (epiphysis). Epiphysses are proximal and distal.

On the border between the diaphysia and epiphysis is located metaepifissor cartilageThanks to which the bone grows in length. Full replacement of this cartilage bone occurs in women by 18-20 years, and in men by 23-25 \u200b\u200byears. From this time, the growth of the skeleton, and therefore the person stops.

Epiphysses are built from spongy bone substance, in the cells of which there is a red bone marrow. Outside epiphyshes are covered artician Hyalin Charity.

Diaphiz consists of compact bone substance. Inside the diaphysis is located bone marrow cavity, It lies yellow bone marrow. Outside Diaphysis covered perceivers. Advocacy diaphysis gradually passes into the epiphyders epiphesis.

The spongy bone consists of their 2 compact bone plates, between which the spoonful layer passes.

Red bone marrow is located in the spongy cells.

Bones It is connected to the skeleton (Skeletos) - from Greek, means dried.