General. Plastic anatomy

1.Doc.

Plastic anatomy - Science, which studies the features of the structure of external forms human body In statics and dynamics, in relationship with the environment - external and internal. The inner medium defines the form (for example, hormones, accelerating or braking growth process). External environment stimulates internal systems (eg, physical exercisechanging development, place of residence, etc.) The value of plastic anatomy for visual arts: It makes it possible to find out how the form is formed and varies under the influence of the environment and age. Knowledge different shapes The same organ, the range of forms (extreme and intermediate forms). It gives the opportunity to work without nature.
^ Plastic Anatomy Methods: Method of study of lively nature. Studying dead nature. The study of artificial nature denoting the shape of the body (doubling). Work with anatomical satin. Studying works of art.
^ 2. Who is considered the founder of plastic anatomy?

The founder of plastic anatomy as science - Leonardo da Vinci.

Anatomy is divided into pathological (study of patients), topographic anatomy (which is located), comparative anatomy (comparison with other alive organisms), plastic anatomy, arising at the first stage of the Renaissance Epoch. General ideas About plastic, beauty form existed for a long time, but the base for the development of modern anatomy was laid only in the era of the Renaissance. Sculptors, artists, doctors played a big role in the development of plastic anatomy.
^ 3. What consist age peculiarities figures?

In babies, the height of the head is laid in the length of the body 4 times;

At 5-6 years 5 times;

At 7-12 years old - 6 times;

At 12-15 years and 7 times;

An adult is 7.5 times (with a height of 180 cm - 8 times). The proportions of the head relative to the body have their own individual dimensional characteristics. Modern ideas About proportions: medium height Men - 170-175 cm, women 160-165 cm. The growth of a person is divided into two equal parts, the division point is the pelvic lines. Width of the thighs in relation to the width of the shoulders in men 1: 1.8; In women -1: 1. The length of the hand corresponds to the three head heights. The ends of the middle finger when the hand is lowered reach the middle of the hips. The shoulder is one and a half of the height of the head. Phalnik (knee cup) is the center lower extremities. The length of the leg corresponds to the four-five heights of the head. Shoulder bone is longer forearm, forearm is longer brush. The femoral bone is longer than the shin, the shin is longer than the foot.

^ 4. What value is usually used as a measurement module of a human figure?

IN Ancient Egypt There were laws on the proportions (they were studied in schools for artists). IN Ancient Greece Artists used head height as a unit of measurement (canon polyclet). Canon - body size system adopted for sample. Canons are changing, this is due to the change in the ideas of beauty. Unit of measurement - module (in Egypt - middle finger, Greece is the height of the head).
^ 5. Name the form of the physique and their distinctive features.

Hypersthenic shape ( fat man). Asthenic form (thin).

NORMOSTENIC Form (Normal Body).
^ 6. What are the building and types of bones? How do they connect with each other?

Two main functions: biological and plastic.

Biological: 1) Holding soft tissues in a certain position, 2) Dynamic function (movement), 3) Participation in the metabolism, 4) The bone marrow part participates in blood formation. Plastic: 1) give a certain form Soft fabrics, 2) themselves take part in the formation (skull). Chemical composition bone tissue: mineral part (main bone firming portion - 70%) and organic part (increases elasticity - 30%).

Bone shape: tubular bones (bones of limbs). Consist of body, ends (epiphysis) and metaphizar cartilage. Flat bones are long (ribs) and wide (blade, bone of the skull creek). Mixed bones (vertebrae, bone of the base of the skull). Bone Connection: 1. Emergency Bone Connections: Connecting-Machines (Bundles), Counting Connections ( intervertebral discs), bone compounds (bone seams). 2. Complete compound - joints. -
^ 7. How are the joints?

The joint is an articulated area connecting two or more bones and having articulated surfaces. The joints are covered with special vitreous cartilage (gealine). Outside, the articulated surfaces are covered with a joint bag or a capsule, which ensures the tightness of the articular cavity and highlights a special fluid for lubricating the driving joint surfaces. Strengthening bundles.
^ 8. Classification of joints on the shape of articular surfaces, axes of rotation and function being performed.

Classification of joints: in the form of articular surfaces, along the axes of rotation. Over the shape of the articular surfaces: cylindrical (between radial and elbow bone) block-shaped (fingers) blocking (elbow joint) ellipsoid (ray-dust joint) saddoid (joint thumb) Ball-shaped (hip) flat joints (between the wrist bones) axis of rotation - the imaginary line around which rotates. 1 - Sustaines: cylindrical, block-shaped, blocking. 2-axes: ellipsoid and saddled. 3-axis: spherical and flat joints. In structure and functions: simple, complex (more than two bones), combined (two are the same in structure and shape of the joint, acting only together - temporal lumine Susta) Complex (have an additional (meniscus) - knee joint between the main articulated surfaces.
^ 9. How are the bones of the skull join?

The skull is conditionally divided into two parts - a brain skull and a facial skull. Skull bones compounds: Continuous bone connections - bone seams. Interrupted - temporomandibular joint (combined joints - work together and have the same structure). Skull as a whole. Front view. Pear-shaped hole (nose). Elets, zicky bones, hatch pits, chin exaltation. The eyeball is a form between oval and square. Dark bugs. Side view. Skulent arc, temporal line, hatching fossa, occipital hill, branches lower jaw. Back view. Dumpy bugs, occipital hill, login lines.

^ 10. What do the facial angle and the head index determine?

Skull shape - two extreme and intermediate: long-headed (dolichocephalic), round-head (brachiocephalic) and normal-headed (mesicephaligic). The front angle form two tangent lines: 1 passes through the nose and base of the nose, 2 - through the base of the nose and the outer hearing pass. It shows how far the lower jaw performs in comparison with the frontal bones (acute angle - protruding the lower jaw, a straight angle - a Greek profile, a stupid angle - ahead is the frontal bone).
^ 11. List the bones of the brain department of the skull.

The brain skull is a vehicle brain that protects it from injuries. To the brain skull include: paired dark bones and temporal bones, unpaired frontal bone, occipient bone, wedge-shaped bone. Dummy bones - flat bones having four corners and four faces, connecting along the top of the skull on top of the skull. In front, they border with the scales of the frontal bone. Rearly dark bones are connected to the occipital bone, and below - with temporal. Outstanding points on dark bones are called dark bugs and used to determine the width of the head. On the outer surface is a part of the temporal line, which limits the temporal plane. Each temporal bone consists of 4 parts. 1 part - scales temporal bone - It is vertically (from above). From the lower edge of the scales, there is a zicky process of temporal bone. Based on the process there is a test fossa for articulation with the lower jaw. 2 part - drum - outer opening of an auditory passage. 3 part is a maternity process, inside of which there is a cellular process connected to the middle ear. In the stony part there are equilibrium (vestibular apparatus) and interior Ear. From her there is a cylinder process. The frontal bone consists of 4 parts. 1 - scales, in which the vertical part is distinguished and a part that goes out, which is connected to the dark bones. On schellowic arcs are located (which are better developed in men) and two frontal beaches (better developed in women). The forehead itself has an in-depth platform in the center - glabell (used to measure the length of the head). At the site of the transition to the side surfaces, temporal lines are formed, limiting the temporal depressions. 2 Ideas form a set ( top) Eyeballs, they have recesses for the tear glands. The nose part has the shape of the horseshoe, the nasal bones are connected to it. The occipital bone consists of 4 parts. 1 - Schee convex form, on it - baseline hill (second point for measuring the length of the head). Below are the outline lines - the top, the middle and the bottom (cervical muscles are attached). On 2 side parts are located on both sides of the ellipsoid form on both sides of the large occipital opening for connecting the spinal cord with the head. 4 part of one. Outside - Pulling hill, inside - the oblong brain (the main centers of breathing and cardiac activity). The wedge-shaped bone consists of a body (in which there is a brain appendage - hypophysis), from which two large wings are departed, two small wings (visible in the orphans) and going down two walled processes. At the top, the wedge-shaped bone is connected with dark and frontal bones, in front - with a zilly bone, rear - with temporal.
^ 12. What bones is the facial skull department?

The facial skull is associated with the senses and consists of 15 bones. Paired: nasal bones form a spin of a solid nose. They are rectangular shapeBut the bottom end is expanded and has a small angle of inclination down. Table bones form the inner wall of the orbit. In the middle - the ridge, which limits the nose-cutting canal. The upper jaw consists of a body and 4 processes - frontal, zhilagogo, alveolar (or cellular) and sky. The body has a hole, which is called a dog or a fanging straw (inside is a Gaimorest cavity). Both bones, connect, form a tray spike at the base of the nose. Skylty bones consist of body and 2 processes. Up is the abnormal process, back - temporable process. The body can be convex or flattened. The cheekbone forms the lowerland edge and takes part in the formation of the outer wall of the orbit, and also takes part in the formation of a zilly arc. Nasal shells - changing the shadow in the nose hole. Palatines Consist of 2 plates - horizontal and vertical connected at right angles. The horizontal is involved in the formation of the sky, and the vertical forms the wall of the nasopharynx. Unpaired: the couch is involved in the formation of the nose. The lower jaw consists of the body and two branches. The body of a hiker form, on it - an alveolar process with wells for teeth. The front of the elevation is located in front and two chiffers (can be merged into one). The branches are departed at an angle of 130-140 ° and consist of two processes - the beanistic (front) and the articular (rear) having the articular head of the ellipsoid form. Between them is a semi-lunar than. At the base of the branches there is chewing bugness and a hole for nerves and vessels. Subject bone serves as the place of attachment and the beginning of the neck muscles. It is assumed that she is the rest of the gill arc.
^ 13. List the departments spinal column

Vertebral pole. Function: The formation of the axis of the body (connects all parts of the body). Shock absorber of blows from the lower extremities (when walking, running, jumping). Defense of the spinal cord (lower reflex center). Biological function - blood formation.

Cervical - 7 vertebrae. Breast - 12 vertebrae. Lumbar - 5 vertebrae. Sacral - 5 vertebrae. Copchik department - 3-5 vertebrae. Each vertebra consists of a body, arc (connected to the body with the roots) and processes. Ost (unpaired) process is located behind, transverse (paired) depart right and left, upper and lower articular processes (paired) - up and down. Between body, arc and roots are the vertebral hole. The bodies of the vertebrals are connected between themselves intervertebral cartilage (discs).
^ 14. What are the spinal bends called and when they are formed?

The vertex pillar is bent in the sagittal direction and has a number of bends. Lordoz is a curvature forward, kyphosis - curvature back. Cervical lordosis, chest kyphosis, lumbar lordosis, sacral kyphosis. The newborn spine straight, curvatures develop gradually. 3-5 months - cervical lordosis, 6-8 months - chest kyphosis, 1 year - Lumbar Lordoz, 12-13 years old - sacral kyphosis. Pathological curvature - scoliosis (curvature of the WBO).
^ 28. What is aponeurosis?

Tendons can be long or short, have a cord, ribbon or flat and wide (aponeurosis)

15. What bones is the skeleton of the chest?

16. What is the difference between true and false ribs?

The chest is formed by 12 breast vertebrae, 12 pairs of edges and chest, or sternum. It has egg-shaped form. True ribs - 7 top steam connecting with their cartilage ends with sternum, and false - 5 lower pairs, of which 3 pairs are connected to each other, participating in the formation of the rib arc, and 2 bottom pairs are freely floating ribs (lying freely in the muscles ). Ribs consist of body, heads and cervix.

The breast consists of a handle, body and a sword-shaped process. Top on the handle of the sternum - jugular clipping. On the sides - the site for connecting to the clavicle. The handle itself in young people is connected to the body using cartilage. On the body of the sternum - pits for cartilage ribs. The elderly fuses a mild process, body and handle. The chest is located at an angle of 15 "inclination compared to the frontal plane. The newborn breasts are close to the cylinder.
^ 18. What parts is the skeleton of the brush?

The skeleton brushes consists of 3 parts: wrists, peasants and phalanx fingers. The wrist bones (8 bones) are located in two rows. In the upper row, in the direction of the thumb to the little finger, there is a visionary, semi-lunar, triangular, pea bone. In the bottom row there are a large polygonal, a small polygonal, dinner, hooked bone. Metal bones are short, tubular, their upper ends, articulated with the wrist, are called bases, lower ends - heads. Heads have a spherical shape, 2-5 heads are interconnected by transverse ligaments. The skeleton of the fingers is formed by the phalanxes (tubular bones). In 2-5 fingers there are basic, intermediate and nail phalanxes, in the thumb - the main and nail. The length of the intermediate phalange is equal to two thirds of the main phalanx, and the length of the nail phalange is equal to two thirds of the intermediate.
^ 19. What is the structure of the bones of the pelvic belt?

The skeleton of the lower limbs consists of the bones of the pelvic belt and the free lower limbs. The bones of the pelvic belt are two paired nameless bones that are connected to the sacral bone. Each unnamed bone consists of three bones - iliac, sedanized and lane. Connecting, they form a godfather, which includes a hip head. The iliac bone forms the widest part of the pelvis. Upper edge - the iliac comb - ends in front of the protrusion (front upper iliac oar), under it there is an front bottom iliac. At the back end you can see the rear top and bottom iliac ax. The body and two branches differ on the sciatic bone. Rising and downward branches form a straight corner. Where both branches are converged, a sedanized borgon is located. Lonatic bone consists of a body and two branches - horizontal and descending. The horizontal branch goes towards midlineHer upper edge is called a robbery.
^ 24. What do the terms "Fixed Point" and "Mobile Point" mean?

The muscle starts from the point of fixed, named so because this part is not moving when cutting the muscle, and ends at the point of mobile (moving point)
^ 26. What groups are head muscles share?

Muscles of the head are divided into the muscles of the skull of the skull and the muscles of the face.

17. List the bones of the shoulder belt and free upper limb .

The skeleton of the upper limbs consists of two parts: the shoulder belt and free upper limbs. The shoulder belt serves to connect the free upper limbs with the torso and consists of a clavicle and blades. The blade, flat triangular pair bone, is located on the posterior surface of the chest. It distinguishes the inner edge, the outer edge, the upper edge and the angles: the lower, internal and external one. Outer angle, expanding, forms articular depression for articulation with shoulder bone. Above the articular depressure moves forward a beak-shaped process. From the inner corner of the blade, the elevation, called the ustye of the blade, which divides the outer surface on the supervoloral and sirebo. The outer edge of the remaining expands and forms an acromion (or acromial process) of the blade. The clavicle is an S-shaped curved bone. The acromial ends of the clavicle are connected to the acromium of the blade, forming an acraque-clavical (flat) joint. The sodged ends of the clavicle together with the jugular clipping (spherical joint) form a jugular cavity. The shoulder belt is connected to the torso only in this place. Free upper limb consists of a shoulder, forearm and brushes. The shoulder bone is a tubular bone with extended epiphysees. At the top there is a spherical thickening - the head, which is articulated with the articular blades, forming a shoulder joint. Between the epiphysis and body there is a recess, or neck shoulder bonelower, on the front surface of the shoulder bone, there are two protrusions - large and small tubercles, or bugs. On the lower epiphysis of the shoulder bone there are two protrusions - internal and outer supermarkets. Between them is the articular unit forms a joint with an elbow bone, and behind the rear of the yammer for the elbow process. On the outdoor side of the block, there is a compensation exaltation that form a joint with radial bone. Above the block is the elbow pumpe for the coronary process of the elbow bone. The forearm consists of two bones - radiation and elbow. The elbow bone is longer radiation, the upper end of its thicker; The radial bone has a more massive lower end. At the top of the elbow bone ends with an elbow process; Below the large semi-lunged cutting is a corpuscle proof, on which there is a spacing of a yam from the radial bone (in this jamb, the edge of the radial bone head is rotated). The lower epiphysis thinner is thin, forms a cylindrical head, a slightly curved cylinder exhaust is slightly curved from the mapleza. Rady bone at the top ends with a cylindrical head. The lower end is expanded, on the side of the elbow bone - a semi-lunar fossa. On the side of the thumb on the lower epiphyshes there is a shill -ide process, at the bottom end facing the wrist, is the articular area for articulation with the wrist (ellipsoid leaky joint).
^ 25. What are the properties and functions of the muscles?

The properties of the muscles are a contractility, irritability, conductivity. Functions are divided into flexors, extensors, rotators (rotators), leading (adductors), discharge (abductors), Pronators (down), supinators (up), levators (lifting), expanders (dlyators) and compressors (sphincters) .. muscles Performing a function together, called synergists, muscles performing the opposite function - antagonists. Muscles - dynamic part of the body (skeleton - passive). Muscles belong to the bones of both levers. Muscle power is determined by the area of \u200b\u200bits cross section and the number of nerve impulses entering the muscle
^ 20. List the bones of the free lower limb.

21. How is the knee joint?

The free lower limb consists of hips, legs and feet. The femoral bone is the longest bone of the skeleton. Upstairs there is a head, below the hip neck, which departs from the body of the hip at an angle. Behind the neck is located big spit, rear - small spit. Neither the lower end are two mysteries - the external and inner, front between them - a flat platform. On the back of the sideways is a deepening. On the side surface of Mjschchelkov there are supermarkets. On the front surface between the thigh and the shin is a knee cup or a patella, its rear surface is covered with cartilage. The shin consists of a large ber bone and a small berth bone. On the upper part of the big bertovoy bone there are mobiles - internal and outdoor. Under the operatoes in front there is a borgon, passing into a long comb. At the lower end of the big berthnoy bone on the inside there is an internal ankle, and on the outside there is a notch for a small bone. Mulberry bone is thinner and less than tibia. On its top - head - there is a joint surface for articulation with the outer myster of the tibia. The lower part of the mobility is the outer ankle underlyingly than the inner.
^ 22. What parts is the foot?

The stop consists of three parts: predicted, plus and phalanx fingers. It consists of seven bones constituting the back of the foot. Block-shaped (ankle) joint with a shin forms a tanny bone. The heel bone forms a rear of the heel borgon. Ahead of the tarannaya lies a visionary bone, ahead of it - three wedges. Ahead of the heel bone lies a cuboid bone. The advantage consists of five tubular bones, each of them consists of the body, bases and heads. Falangie fingers in the number of bones do not differ from the phalanx of the fingers of the hands, but less in size, with the exception of the thumb. The arch of the foot (three codes are two longitudinal, internal and outdoor, and transverse).
^ 23. How are the muscles?

Muscles. General doctrine on muscle muscles. They are divided into: body muscles (or somatic, or skeletal, or cross-striped, or arbitrary); muscles of internal organs (or smooth, or involuntary); Muscles of the heart are mixed muscles (and cross-striped, and smooth). Muscular shaped are divided into spindle-shaped, square, wide, trapezoid, deltoid, rhombid, straight., Kosy, round. Muscle structure: consist of muscle fibers that are combined into bundles. The shell covering the whole muscle (many beams) is called fascia. At the end of the muscle pass into the tendon. Tendons can be long or short, have a shape of a cord, tape or be flat and wide (aponeurosis). Each muscle also includes blood vessels and nerves.
^ 27. List the muscles of the skull's crust.

The muscles of the skull cast: the occipital muscles - start from the lower outline and are attached to the lower edge of the tendral helmet (tendral stretching, covering the entire burden of the skull). When reducing the occipital muscles, the tendon helmet is delayed back. Ear muscles (top, front and rear) - start from the lower edge of the tendon helmet and are attached to the ear sink from above, in front and rear. Rudimentary muscles (if developed, a person can move ears).

^ 30. What are the features of the Mimic muscles?

The muscles of the face are divided into two groups: chewing muscles and mimic muscles. Mimic muscles have three features: begin with a solid base, attach to the skin. In their structure, they are thin, tender muscles. They are innervated directly from the centers of the head (the remaining muscles mainly from the spinal cord).

The frontal muscle - begins from the front edge of the tendon helmet at the level of the scalp and attaches to the skin area. Function: when cutting raises eyebrows and shrinks the skin of the forehead. Mimic value: Muscle attention (with moderate reduction). With a strong reduction - surprise or fright. Circular muscle eyes consists of 2 parts: the ordown and age-old part. It starts from the inner corner of the eye, goes around the orcap. Deep bundles are attached to the outer edge of the orbit, and the surfaces go further and attached to the inner corner of the eye. Function: When reducing the eyebrows, the eyebrows fall down, the skin of the forehead smoothes. When reducing the century, the eyes are closed, eyes close. Mimic value: focus. Muscle, wrinkling eyebrows - begins from the inner duck eye, punches the orphanage of circular muscles and is attached to the skin in the middle of the eyebrows. With the reduction of this muscle, 1-2 longitudinal folds between the eyebrows are formed, the eyebrow is cleaned in the middle. Mimic value: Mimic soulful pain. The muscles of the pride - starts from the nasal bones, goes up and attaches to the skin in the Glabell region. Forms from the base of the nose transverse folds. Mimic value: Mimica of gloating, threats (Bind Mimica). Muscle raising the upper lip (square muscle) - begins with 3 heads: 1 (angular) - from the inner edge of the eye; 2 (Nizhneglaznichny) - from the Nizhneglazny region upper jaw, S (cheek) - from zhilogo bone. Deep bundles of this muscle are woven into the circular MBTs, and the surface - in the skin upper Lip.. Function: Raises the upper lip, deepens the nose-lobster. Mimica sadness. The skil muscle - begins on the body of the zick bone, it is attached to the skin of the angles of the mouth, deep bundles are woven into the circular muscle of the mouth. Function: stretches the corners of the mouth up, deepens the nose-lipstock. Mimica laughter. The true muscle laughter is part of the subcutaneous muscle, a thin bundle. It begins from the fascia of the chewing muscle, it is attached to the skin in the area of \u200b\u200bthe angles of the mouth. Function: forms snaps on the cheeks when smile and laugh. Nasal muscle - begins two parts from the elevation of the incisors of the upper jaw, go up and splits two legs: to the wings nose is coming Wrought, above, on the back of the nose - transverse (these legs are woven into each other). Function: when cutting, heals the nose and expands the wings of the nose. Mimica sniffing. The muscle, lowering the nasal partition - starts from the elevation of the 2 upper incisors of the upper jaw and is attached to the nasal partition. Function: Lower the nasal partition, participates in the facial pain of sniffing. The penetrating muscle (pipe muscle) - begins on the alveolar processes of the upper and lower jaws, as well as from the tendon, stretched between the walled process of wedge-shaped bone and the angle of the lower jaw. Bundles are aimed forward, it is woven into the circular muscle of the mouth. Function: blowing air, participation in the chewing process. The muscle, lowering the lower lip (square muscle) - starts from the front surface of the body of the lower jaw at the level of the incisors to the fang. Muscular beams are directed up, deeply crowded into the circular muscle of the mouth, surfaces are attached to the skin lower Luba. Function: lowers and turns the lower lip. Mimica disgust, arrogance. Muscle, lowering angles of the mouth - starts from the lower edge of the lower jaw at the level of the incisors. Bundles go up and attach to mouth corners. Function: lowers mouth corners down. Mimican disgust, neglect, arrogance. The chin muscle - begins from the elevation of the cutters of the lower jaw, attached to the skin in the chin area. Function: pulls the skin of the chin up. Mimicu Power of Physical and spiritual power Will. Fang, or dog, muscle - begins in a dog jamb and attached to the skin in the field of fangs. Rudimentary muscle (raises the skin over the fangs). The circular muscle of the mouth is the most powerful of all mimic muscles. It consists of two parts: outer (under the skin of the lips) and internal. Deep bundles are attached to alveolar overhead and lower jaws in the area of \u200b\u200bincisors and fangs, superficial - switch to each other and hang on beams formed by other muscles. Function: When reducing the outer part of the lip stretches into the tube, while reducing the inner part of the lip is closed.
^ 29. What are the functions of chewing muscles?

The muscles of the face are divided into two groups: chewing muscles and mimic muscles. Chewing muscles: Actually, the chewing muscle begins two heads from the zilly arc and the lower edge of the body of the zick bone, it is attached to the chewing jaw bugger. Function: raises lowered lower jaw. The temporal muscles begin at the temporal line of the skull (frontal and dark bones), goes into the temporal pit and is attached to the beanvenge of the lower jaw. The outer wonderland muscle begins on the wingid process of wedge-shaped bone, attached to the articularity of the lower jaw. Function: pulls the lower jaw forward and to the side. The inner wing like muscle begins in the same place where the outer jaw is attached to the corner of the lower jaw from the inside. Function: Raises and pulls the lower jaw forward.
^ 34. How does the ladin arranged?

Subject bone supported by muscles, lies on the border between the bottom cavity

Mouth, respiratory tube (located in front) and the esophagus in which the throat goes

The cavity behind the cavity of the nose and mouth. Top part respiratory tube - Gortan -
has a cartilage basis. From above is the thyroid cartilage, under it - Pisnevoid
crying, under it - the sneak-shaped cartilage. They are connected in men at an angle, in women

Arc. Crimea Gortan goes into the breathing throat - a trachea consisting of cartilage
rings connected by membranes She passes behind the jugular pamph
and there is divided into bronchi leading to the easy.
^ 37. What is called a diaphragm?

The diaphragm (bustle-abdominal barrier) is a dome-shaped thin muscle, located horizontally inside the body on the border between the chest cavity and the cavity of the abdomen. It begins from the lower edge of the chest, forming a central tendon stretching. Function: When inhaling a diaphragm, shrinking, lowers, while the chest rises and expands; The stomach walls are filled. When the aperture exhale rises, the pressure on the lungs - the air of them goes out, the stomach is retracted.

^ 36. What groups are breast muscles share?

Breast muscles - surface and deep muscles. The big breast muscle, steam room, begins in three parts: from the inner half of the clavicle (crooking part), from the sternum and the rib cartilage (sternular part) and from the tendral case of the straight muscle of the abdomen (abdominal part). Surves back to the place of attachment (large bumps of shoulder bone). Function: leads upper limbs, rotation of the hand inward. Front gear muscle, steam room, begins in the form of teeth from the front side surface of the chest (from 8-9 top ribs), envelopes the chest. It is attached to the inner edge of the blade. Function: pulls the shovel forward, pressing to the chest. Plastic value: 3-4 lower teeth are highlighted. A small breast muscle is under the big thoracic muscle. It starts from 2-5 ribs of the teeth, it is attached to the beak blade of the blade. Function: tightens the shovel forward and down
^ 32. How are human senses organs?

The eye - consists of an eyeball (main apparatus of vision) and auxiliary (eyelids, eyebrows, eyelashes, laundry glands, tear meat, eye muscles). The eyeball has a shape of a ball. It has three shells: an outdoor sheath, or a sclerator, it goes into a transparent cornea; Under the scleria lies a vascular shell, which goes into the rainbow shell, in the center of which is the pupil; Under the vascular lies the mesh shell, perceiving the color and light, which is rear in the eye nerve. The mouth is based on the plastic features of the skeleton and teeth (the ratio of the teeth of the upper and lower jaw is called a bite). Normal bite - the cutting surfaces of the incisors of the upper jaw protrude above the lower by 1.5 - 2 mm. A nipple bite - cutting surfaces coincide. Also, the lower cutters can perform over the upper. Facial projected - cutters do not get each other. Lips are symmetric folds formed outside the skin, from the inside the mucous membrane. At the place of the transition of the skin into the mucous membrane lies the red border lips. There are 4 types: thin lips, thick lips (sharply outlined), chubby lips, Middle lips. Depending on the bite ahead, the top, then the lower lip. On the upper lip of the tubercock divides the red border of the lips into two wings. On the bottom lip - a small groove. Own sink is formed by ear cartilage. The lower part of the ear is a dumy - cartilage does not contain. The outer edge of the auricle forms curls, parallel to the curls there is an arrangement, which at the top forms a deepening, called a triangular fossa. In the depths of the ear shell there is an auditory passage. Front protrudes the kids, there is antiques above the urine. The nose - the form depends on the nasal bones, the severity of the tray spike and cartilage. Triangular cartilages form the side walls of the nose, in the middle there is a cartilaginous partition, the wings of the nose form small wing cartilage. 4 forms of the nose: a straight nose, a hunchback or an eagle nose (the bottom third forms a sharply pronounced angle), a smoky nose (almost straight, but the lower third is expanding sharply in the transverse direction), a gently rolled nose (more sharply expanding than drunks).

^ 44. Name the longest muscle in the human body.

The tailort muscle begins from the front of the upper ointle of the iliac bone, it passes the degree to the inside of the knee joint, envelopes it and is attached to the tubes of the big beritic bone. Function: flexion in hip and knee joint, Rotation of hip knee out.
^ 31. Give the definition of facial expressions.

Mimica is a complex process carried out by the muscles of the face, reflecting the inner state of man. Many muscles of the face and even the torso take part in the implementation of the facial expressions. Mimica also allows you to mask your feelings.
^ 33. List the largest neck muscles,

In women, the neck shape is close to the cylinder, in men - to the cone. The common muscles of the neck, the muscles are higher than the sub-band bone, the muscles are lower than the sub-band bone. The shared muscles of the neck include: the subcutaneous muscle - lies directly under the skin in the form of a thin muscular plate, begins from the bodies of the chest at the level of 2 ribs, turns through the clavicle, passes through the lower edge of the lower jaw and is attached to the fascia of the chewing muscle. The front thin beam separated (attached to the corners of the mouth - received the name of the true muscle of laughter). Function: at a voltage forms longitudinal folds, pulls the neck of the neck. Breast-clarity-preceding muscle - begins with two heads. The sternum - from the handle of the sternum, 2 - the clavical one - from the sternum part of the clavicle, between them - a small permissible jamb. Both heads are connected to the middle of the neck into a single muscle abdomen, which is attached to the cottage process and the upper outline. Function: With simultaneous reduction, the head is folded back, with one-sided reduction - the tilt of the head towards the cutting muscle. Under it there are staircase muscles, which begin with the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae, go down, divert cones, and attach to 1-2 ribs. Function: The tilt of the neck forward, raise the chest at the moment of inhalation. The muscles are lower than the sub-bandy bone: the sternum-pupping muscle - begins from the handle of the sternum, attached to the body of the sub-band bone. Function: pulls down the lift bone and larynx (when swallowing). Bester-thyroid muscle - attached to the plate of the thyroid cartilage. From it begins a shield-subwind muscle. The blatas-lift muscle - begins from the upper edge of the blade, goes forward and up, attached to the body of the sub-band bone. The function of these muscles: pulling the sublingual bone down, when fixing the lower jaw, raise the sternum. The muscles are higher than the sub-band bone: the bubbling muscle (steam room) - the front abdomen begins with the chin fossa of the lower jaw, the back of the abdomen - from the cottage clipping. Both abdomen are connected by a tendon jumper and attached to the body of the sub-band bone. Function; Raises the sublabic bone, when it is fixed, lowers the lower jaw. Muscade muscle - lies deeper than bubbly, forms the bottom oral cavity. Affects external form. On the rear surface of the neck there are belt muscles, the function of which is to keep the head (pull the neck back and to the side). The head of the head of the head begins on the spasy processes of the five lower cervical and three-top breast vertebrae. Attachment: To the upper right line of the occipital bone. The Neck muscle belt begins from the spiny processes of 3-4 breast vertebrae, attached to the transverse process of three top cervical vertebrae
^ 35. Name the function of the surface muscles of the back.

The muscles of the back are the muscles of the surface layer, the inner layer, the deep muscles of the back. Surface layer: a trapezoidal (or hooded) muscle - a steam room, starts from the lower right line and the spawn processes of all cervical and chest vertebrae, it is attached to the outer end of the clavicle, to the acromion and the bladder asset. Function: when reducing the blade shifts, pulls the upper limb. The widest (wide) muscle of the back, the steam room, begins tendon from six lower thoracic, all lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum and the back of the iliac crest, reaching the top of the fiber three teeth between the teeth of the outer slanting of the abdominal mops, then goes to the side and up, go on top Bone and attaches to a small bump of shoulder bone. Function: The rotation of the shoulder is inside, pulls the hand to the body when it moves in the back direction. Plastic value: Pesters at the level of lumbar lordosis, the shape of the bottom of the back. The inner layer: Rhombid Mute "- increases the relief of the trapezoidal muscle. It starts from the spiny processes of the two lower cervical and four-top breast vertices, goes down and attached to the inner edge of the blade. The muscle lifting the blade - the pair, begins on the transverse processes of the four top cervical vertebrae, goes down and is attached to the inner corner of the blade. Function: pulls the shovel up. The deep muscles of the back: the sacrolling of the back muscle (the overall spinner of the back) - begins from the spiny processes of the underlying vertebrae from the sacrum to the neck, is attached to the transverse process of the overlying vertebrae. Stretches in the form of two tapes with the right and left sides of the spine. Function: Straightens the back.

Intercostal muscles are located in two layers between the ribs (external intercostal and internal intercostal). Outdoor intercostal ribs raise (inhalation), the internal is lowered the ribs (exhale).
^ 40. What are the functions of the muscles of the shoulder belt?

The deltoid muscle begins in three parts: from the outer third of the clavicle, the acromion of the blades and the acas of the blades. The muscle covers the shoulder joint, the bundles converge to the place of attachment - the middle part of the shoulder bone. Function: Hand dishard to a horizontal level while cutting all beams; When reducing only the front or rear beams - the movement of the hand forward and backward. The supervacious muscle begins in a supervoloys of the blade, attached to a large humerus bay. Function: Hold your hand. Salt muscle begins in a suitable fossa, attached to a large humerus bone. Function: turns the hand to the outside (supinator). The small round of the muscle begins the outer edge of the sibwise pits, is attached to a large humerus bay. Function: turns the hand to the outside. The big round muscle begins from the lower corner of the blade and the bottom; The outer edge of the blade is attached along with the tendon of the widest muscles of the back to the small bay bug. Function: gives a hand and turns it inward (Pronator). The sublock muscle begins with all internal surface The blades are attached to a small humerus bone. Function: turns inside and gives a hand.

^ 38. List the abdominal muscles.

39. How is a white belly line formed?

Muscles side surface and front surface. The outer smelting muscle muscle - begins from the external side surface of the chest with muscle teeth from 7-8 lower edges (the upper 4 teeth borders with the front gentle muscles, the lower 4 teeth with the teeth of the wide muscles of the back). Lower: aponeurosis, which, passing ahead of the abdominal muscle in front, grows up with the aponeurosis of the other side, forming white line belly. The lower edge of the aponeurosis (from the front of the upper axis of the ileal bone to the lane) forms a tippane (inguinal) ligament. Function: while reducing the body is bent forward; With one-sided reduction - the slope to the same side. The inner oblique muscle - begins from the ridge of the iliac bone and the tippack bundle, the upper fibers are attached to the edge of the three lower edges, the rest are moving into wide aponeurosis, which in the outer edge of the direct muscle is divided into two parts, one of which goes ahead, and the second is behind Straight abdominal muscles,\u003e forming her vagina. Participates in the formation of a white belly line. Flexing the torso in the direction of the cutting muscle. Under the inner oblique muscle there is a transverse muscle. The straight muscle of the abdomen lies on both sides of the middle line on the front surface of the abdomen. It begins from 5-7 lower edges and the sword-shaped grudge proof, attached to the lane. The muscle is separated by three tendon jumpers and is embedded in a tendral vagina formed by aponeurosis of outdoor oblique, internal abdominal muscles and transverse muscles. Function: Bends torso, when fixing the body - pulls up the pelvis. The pyramidal muscle is a small muscle of the triangular shape, starts from the cloth, attached to the white lines of the abdomen below the navel. Function: pulls the white stomach line, forming a median furrow. Plastic belly: Men especially reliefly stand out by direct abdominal muscle, for women it is uncharacteristic. The navel is somewhat lower than the middle of the abdomen (the scar formed after the cord dressing) has a funnel shape.

^ 42. List the pelvic belt muscles.

A large jagged muscle begins on the rear surface of the sacrum and the back of the ridge and the wings of the iliac bone. It goes down, attach to the upper third femoral bone. Function: extension in tazobed Susta, Rotation of hip out. Provides vertical body position. The lower edge of this muscle forms a berium line separating the pelvis from the thighs. Below the sacrum is large, butorous muscles are separated by an inter-fodded furrow. The average jagged muscle begins on the outer surface of the wings of the iliac bone, goes down and is attached to a large sterile thigh. Function: Wars the thigh, participates in its extension, supports the pelvis and the torso in a vertical position. The small buttock muscle begins on the outer surface of the iliac bone, attached to a large sterile thigh. Function: Hip disharden, rotation to be involved. The iliac-lumbar muscle (inner layer) is an antagonist of a large berry muscle. It begins from the inner wall of the pelvis, the twelfth breast and four upper lumbar vertebrae, goes down and attaches to a small sterile thigh. Function: flexion in the hip joint. The muscle straining the wide fascia of the hip, begins from the front of the upper oyster of the ileal bone, is invested into the wide fascia of the hip. Function: Flexing the thigh in the hip joint, strains the wide fascia of the hip (the connective tissue shell, which fits the thigh and the pelvis, holding the thigh muscles and the pelvis together).

^ 41. What groups are the top limbs muscles share?

Two-headed shoulder muscles (biceps) begins with two heads from the blades of the blades and from the bevum-shaped blade of the blade; Both heads are connected in one muscular abdomen. It is attached to a tendral to the upper blasting of the radial bone. Function: Bending the shoulder muscle is covered with a double-headed; It starts from the middle of the front surface of the shoulder bone, attached to the upper end of the elbow bone. Function: Flexing hands in locks Susta . The beak-shoulder muscle begins with a beak shovel, attached to the middle of the inner surface of the shoulder bone. Function: pulls the shoulder to the blade. Three-headed shoulder muscles (triceps) begins with three heads: the outer head - from the outer surface of the shoulder bone, the long (average) head is from the blade under the joint cavity, the inner head is from the inner surface of the shoulder bone. The heads pass into the tendon, which is attached to the elbow bone elbow process. Function: Sleeping a hand in the elbow joint. The muscles of the forearm consist of two muscular arrays: muscle-bent muscles begin from the inner shoulder blanket, the exterior and supinator begin with an outdoor supervision. The outer layer (group of flexors): Round Pronator adjoins the tendons of the two-headed and shoulder muscles, forms the region of the muscular elbow pumm; It goes aside and attached to the middle third of the radial bone. Function: Rotate hand palm down. The radial brush flayer lies next to the round pronator; It is attached to the tendon to the base of 2 methole bones. A long palm muscle is a tendon heading to the middle of the brush and woven into palm aponeurosis. Function: pulls palm aponeurosis, contributes to the exact coordination of the fingers. The elbow brush flexor partially begins from the elbow bone, adjoins the long palm muscle. Fucked tender to pea bone. Function: bends the brush towards the mother's maiden. The surface flexor of the fingers begins from the inner brace of shoulder and the top of the radiation and elbow bones, the tendon goes into four thin tendons. At the level of the main phalange, each of the four tendons is divided into two more, which are attached to the reasons for the middle phalanges of the fingers. Function: bends 2-5 fingers. Internal (deep) layer. Deep (general) Finger Finger - Tendon is divided into 4, which pass under the tenders of the surface flexor of the fingers and are attached to the nail phalanxes of 2-5 fingers. The long thumbnail begins starts from the top of the radial and elbow bones, attached to the nail phalanx of the thumb. Square Pronator begins on the inner surface of the elbow bone, attached to the side surface of the radial bone. Function: Turns the radiation bone inside. The extension group: the shoulder muscle (long supinator) begins on the outer edge of the shoulder bone (between the two-headed and three-headed muscles), is attached above the cylinder-ray bone. Function: Flexing of hands in the elbow joint, restores the median position of the forearm after its rotation inside or outward. Long radial extensor brush is attached to a tendon to the base of the metropolitan bone. Function: extension and takes a brush. A short radiation extensor of the brush is attached to the base of 3 methol bones. Function; Sleep the brush toward the thumb. The total (long) extensor of the fingers at the lower third of the forearm is divided into four tendons. At the level of the main phalange, each of four tendons is divided into three more, two are attached to the bases of the middle phalanx of the fingers, the third is attached to the base of the nail phalanx. Function: extension 2-5 fingers. The mistrust of the maiden is attached to the nail phalange of the maiden. The elbow sprier of the brush is attached to the base of the fifth punch bone. Internal (deep) layer: The short thumb exterminator is attached to the base 1 of the large finger phalange. Long thumb exterminant is attached to the base of the nail phalanx of the thumb. Function: Excuse the thumb and pulls it back. The long shower of the thumb muscle comes from the radial bone side, attached to the base of 1 metropolitan bone. The supinator is attached to the front surface of the radial bone. Turns the radiation bone out. Muscles of the brush (palm surface muscles and muscles of the back surface). Paludual surface muscles: Muscular exaltation of a thumb, consisting of four muscles starting from bones and cross-ligament of wrist attaching to the base of the first large finger phalange: short muscle, reducing the thumb, a short thumb twin, muscle, antiplative thumb (attached to The first cuff), leading the muscle of the thumb. Muscular elevation of the Mizinza consists of three muscles starting from bones and. The cross-ligament of the wrist attaching to the main phalanx of the Misinza: a short disgusting muscles muscle, a short maiden flexor, a muscle, antiplanting a little finger (attached to the fifth of Metal bone). The short palm muscle starts from the inner edge of the palm aponeurosis, attached to the skin of the elbow edge of the palm. Forms a longitudinal furrow and fold. From a plastic point of view, muscle elevation has general shape, The relief of individual muscles is not viewed. On the surface of the palm between the muscular elevations is palm aponeurosis (triangular tendon plate). The black-shaped muscles start from the tendons of a deep flexor fingers, attached to the base of the first phalange of 2-5 fingers. Function: Flex palm (violin muscles). Inter-site palm muscles lie between the Metal bones, are attached to, the main phalanges of 2-5 fingers. Function: lead (bring it closer) 2-5 fingers with each other. Rear interception muscles lie under skin The back of the brush. Function: 2-5 fingers.
^ 43. What groups are the thigh muscles share?

Muscles of the thigh (the muscles of the front, rear and inner surface). The muscles of the front surface: the tongue on the thigh muscle begins with four muscles, or heads. The outer wide head begins on the base of the large spit and the outer side surface of the thigh, the inner wide - from the inner surface of the femur, the intermediate is wide - from the front surface of the thigh, the straight head begins from the front of the lower oxide of the ileal bone. Below, they go into a common powerful tendon that grows up to a patella, its continuation is its own bunch of a patella, attaching to the tubing of a large beritic bone. Function: Sleeping the shin, straight muscle bends the thigh in the hip joint. The tailort muscle begins from the front of the upper ointle of the iliac bone, it passes the degree to the inside of the knee joint, envelopes it and is attached to the tubes of the big beritic bone. Function: bending in a hip and knee joint, the rotation of the thigh knee outwards. Muscles of the inner surface (leading muscles): a gentle muscle begins from the descending branch of the lane, go down, is attached to the tubes of a large beritic bone. Function: leads the thigh and rotates it inside. The big leading thigh muscle begins from the descending branch of the wondium, the ascending branch of the sedellastic and sedanistic bulb. It is attached to the inner surface of the thigh from a small spit to the inner mouse. Function: leads the thigh. The long leading muscle begins from the launch bone, attached to the middle third of the femoral bone from the inside. Function: leads the thigh. A short thrust muscle begins from the descending branch of the wondium, attached to the upper third of the femoral bone from the inside. Function: leads the thigh. The scallop muscle begins on the horizontal branch of the naval bone, attached under a small spit. Function: Lifts the thigh and rotates it out. Back Surface Muscles: Blood Muscle Hip begins with two heads: a long head - from a sedlicated hill, short - from the middle third of the femoral bone, attached to the head of a small-terber bone. Function: bends his shin and rotates it out. The semi-dry muscle begins from the sedlicate bulb, it is attached to the volatility of a large beritic bone. Function: Bends the shin and rotates it inside. The semi-stepped muscle begins from the sedellastic bulb, it is attached to the inner mumout of a large beritic bone. Function: Bends the shin and rotates it inside.
^ 45. List the leg muscles.

The long small -com muscle begins on the top of a small bertovoy bone, envelopes behind the exterior ankle, goes under the foot arch and is attached to the middle of the inner edge of the foot (to the first wedge-shaped bone and to the base of the first tie). Function: Bends the foot, lifts the outer edge of the foot, provides a solid foot stop. A short small, the muscle begins from the lower half of the small berth, to the outer ankle. It is attached to the fifth hanging bone. Function: Fees the foot, lifts her outer edge. Back Surface Muscles: Three-headed Icres Muscle (or icy and Cambalo-Shaking Muscles) Begins Three Heads: Two ( calf muscle) - from the rear surface of the inner and outer disintegrations of the hip, are connected by the median line; The third head (Cambalo Muscle) begins on the upper third of both bones of the leg. Three heads are connected in one powerful Achillovo tendon, which is attached to the heel bug. Function: bends the foot, lifting the heel borgon; The calf muscle produces bending in the knee joint. Deep layer: The long thumbnail bent starts from the rear surface of a small berth bone, attached to the nail phalanx of the thumb. Function: bends thumb and through it a foot, participates in the rotation of the foot. A long flexor of the foot of the foot starts from the rear surface of a large ber bone. At the sole, the tendon of this muscle is divided into four tendons, which at the level of the first phalange of 2-5 fingers permeate the tendons of the short finger flexor and are attached to the nail phalanx 2-5 fingers. Function: Bends 2-5 fingers and all the foot. The poplinting muscle begins on the outdoor dish, attached to the rear surface of the big berty bone. Function: Bends the shin and rotates it inside. The rear tibial muscle begins on the rear surface of the big bertovoy, attached to the first wedge-shaped bone. Function: Flexing a foot, rotates its outer edge inside, participates in strengthening the foot of the foot. The muscles of the front surface: the front tibial muscle begins under the outer mystery of the big bertic bone and the interstice membrane, is attached to the base of 1 tie bone. Function: Sleeping the foot, lifting it up the arch. The long extensor of the fingers starts from the top of the bones of the leg, the muscle tendon is divided at an ankle height of 5 tendons, which at the height of the first phalanxy are divided into three parts (the average is attached to the base of the second phalanx, and the side are attached to the base of the nail phalanx 2-5 fingers). The fifth tendon is attached to the fifth hanging bone. Function: Explifting your fingers and raises the outer edge of the foot. The long energizer of the thumb starts from the interstice membrane and the small bone, attached to the base of the nail phalanx of the thumb. At the place of the transition to the foot of the tendon of the leg muscles is held by bundles: at the top - transverse, below - cruciform.

^ 46. \u200b\u200bName the foot muscles.

Muscles of the plantar surface: the muscular elevation of the thumb consists of 4 muscles attached to the base of the first phalange of the thumb: the muscle, which takes place the thumb, begins from the heal bone's heel. Muscle, antiplating thumb, starts from 1-4 tall bones; Muscle, leading a thumb, starts from 2-4 tall bones; 4. Short thumb twin, starts from three wedge-shaped bones. Muscular elevation of the Mizinza consists of 3 muscles attached to the base of the first Falangie Misinage: the muscle, the disgusting of the little finger, starts from the heel bone; a short maiden flexor begins on the base of the fifth tie bone; Muscle, antiplanting little finger, begins from cubic and wedge-shaped bones. Muscles central Region Soles: a short flexor of the fingers begins from the head of the heel bone, the tendon is split into four, each of them is split into two, attaching to the bases of the average phalange of 2-5 fingers. The square muscle of the soles begins from the heel bone, attached to the tendons of the long flexor of the fingers. Function: Participates in the flexion of the fingers. The plantar intercellate muscles begin with the inner surface of the tie bones and inter-emergency membranes, attached to the main phalanges of the fingers. Function: fingers lead, participate in the bending of the fingers. The back side: rear interception muscles begin in the intervals of tie bones, attach to the main phalanges of the fingers. Function: Flowing fingers. A short finger extensor and a short thumb exterminant starts from the back of the heel bone, go into tendons and attached to the base of the nail phalanx of the fingers. The bottom of the foot is covered with plantar aponeurosis and a layer of adipose tissue protecting the foot from the external environment.
^ 47. How is the skin cover?

Leather - sophisticated organcovering the body outside. Skin weight is 16-17% weight of the whole body. The shape of the skin does not quite correspond to the form of the musculoskeletal base. The subcutaneous fiber fills some recesses, rounded the shape of the body and forms protrusions and folds. Function: 1. The biological (to which includes a protective, preventing the penetration of microorganisms and the action of mechanical, chemical, and other factors, as well as functions of touching, metabolism, thermoregulation, etc.); 2. Plastic (changing body shape). The outer skin layer - the epidermis, directly in contact with external environment (It is a multilayer flat epithelium). The second layer is the actual leather or a derm, consisting of dense weaves of connective tissue fibers forming a frame in which cells, hair, greasy and sweet glands, vessels, nerves. The subcutaneous tissue (hypoderma) consists of fatty babes separated by layers of connective tissue. The thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer varies widely (up to 10 cm). IN subcutaneous tissue Fat reserves are deposit, it serves to protect organs from injuries and hypothermia. Skin folds - permanent (skin of the eyelid, ear sinks, nose, folds over joints) and non-permanent, or acquired - from harmful habits and age (wrinkles). With age, the elasticity of the skin is reduced, wrinkles are formed in the corners of the eye, in the forehead area, at the mouth, ring folds in the neck, at the joints. The surface of the skin is covered complicated patternwhich does not change with age. Skin appendages - hair, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands. All skin, with the exception of the red border, palms and soles, covered with hairpots. The structure of the hair: the root, a bulb, near the silent iron located nearby (protects against breaking and premature dying). Every three years there is a change hair cover. The skin and hair color depends on the pygment content of melanin. From age I. stressful situations Hair is gray. Nails - horny appendages consisting of free edges on the skin and nail root (in nail bed). The form depends on hereditary features and activities. Equilibrium. The body is in a state of equilibrium when the center of gravity (the point on which the bulk of the body is accounted for; common center The severity of the body is the body of the second sacrilament vertebra, if you spread to the front wall - two fingers above the lannoy articulation) is within the support area (in standing position These are feet feet and space between them). The vertical center of gravity is perpendicular, lowered from the center of gravity to the support area. Equilibrium can be more stable and less stable. When standing with a support for two legs, the projection of the center of gravity is between two soles. With a support for one leg, the vertical line that comes from the jugular depression passes through an ankle joint of the support leg. The pelvis axis is directed to the leg free from the load, the axis of the shoulder belt goes in the opposite direction. The seat increases the area of \u200b\u200bsupport. When lying, the center of gravity is located almost on the area of \u200b\u200bthe support.

Introduction to plastic anatomy

Anatomy is called science that studies the structure of the human body. Part of it specifically meets the needs of plastic arts of painting and sculptures, is called plastic anatomy. It is engaged in the study of external forms of the body, considering them both in a state of rest and while driving. The composition of the plastic anatomy also includes the doctrine of proportions or the ratio of body parts between them, modifying body shapes, depending on the floor and age.

Exterior forms are caused internal structure Body, which presents a combination of many other parts associated with each other, called organs. Each organ has its own definite form and performs a certain life-definition. Therefore, a living body, as a combined integer, consisting of organs, as opposed to dead, inorganized bodies, is the name of the body.

For the purposes of plastic anatomy, such a detailed study of all organs is required, since it is not all of them and not equally affect the external forms of the body. Three system systems are the greatest importance for plastic anatomy: skeleton, muscle and external Pokrov (leather). The remaining bodies are laid in the body more or less hidden and therefore do not have almost no effect on external forms. However, some of them become visible outside, and therefore consisted of plastic anatomy. ** For example, when describing the person, except for the skeleton, muscles and skin, it is necessary to get acquainted with the structure of the organ of vision - the eye, which is one of the most characteristic plastic characteristics of the person. Another example is the so-called subcutaneous veins - parts blood system, noticed in some places under the skin in the form of bluette.

When describing organs, it is necessary to have an idea of \u200b\u200bthe tissues from which they are built. Fabrics consist of the smallest, visible only under the microscope, elementary particles - cells. Each cell represents little lump living substance, which includes very complex chemical compounds. In the cell distinguish the body and the kernel. The shape of the cells is very diverse, depending on the type of tissue. The cell is the main vital element, without which the vital activity is not only individual organs, but also the whole organism. In many tissues, in addition to cells, an intermediate substance representing the cell derived between them is located.

General plan for the structure of the human body. The human body consists of a head that is connected to the torso through a narrowed neck section. The torso represents the largest part of the body, having, approximately, the form of a cylinder, flattened in front of the back, with a small interception (waist), located above the middle of the entire body. The front of the front is clearly divided into two, lying above each other, the area: the top - the chest and the bottom - the stomach. The rear side of the body is called back; It stretches into the same surface of the neck, and the book, through the curved part of its part - the loin, goes into the convex back of the buttocks that end the rear side of the body from the bottom. Two pairs of appendages are departed from the torso - upper and lower limbs. The lower limbs are massive and longer than the upper and with a vertical position of the body in humans make up its lower department, while continuing the torso book.

The upper limbs are brought on the sides of the upper end of the body. Each limb, in turn, is divided into three links, which are called shoulder, forearm and brush on the upper limb, and on the lower thigh, shin and stop.

According to its internal device, the human body represents two connected hollow tubes, which are located in parallel in full length of the body, ranging from the head to the bottom of the body. The front, wider tube surrounds the so-called inside, in other words, digestive, respiratory and urinary organs. Rear, narrower tube concludes central bodies nervous system - Head I. spinal cord. On the front of the head, called the face, are mouth and nose, representing the initial departments of digestive and respiratory organs enclosed in the front tube. In the field of persons, the main organs are also focused higher feelings - Eyes and ears. As for the structure of the walls of the tubes, their main stratum consists of a skeleton, from the muscles.

On top of this skeletal muscular layer, covering both tubes, is located a continuous layer of outer covers (leather). In contrast to the rest of the body, the limbs, which are attachments of the body, do not have cavities inside; These are the formation consisting of a skeleton and muscles dressed by outer circumference.

The human body is built on a double-sided - symmetric type, that is, it can be divided into two identical half - the right and left - plane, which goes backwards along the midline (the median plane).

Thanks to the symmetry of both half of the body, most of the organs lying on the middle plane, pair. Unpaired organs are located in the middle line of the body and can be separated by the median plane into two symmetric half. However, this body symmetry is not quite strict. Both half of the head, neck and torso are unequal, just like the right and left limbs, both the upper and lower.

Features of the skeleton structure

The skeleton consists of solid formations - bones, which are connected between themselves more or less moving through softer binding parts. The skeleton serves as a support of the whole body, determining his shape and sizes. Some of the skeleton bones, connecting together, in addition, serve as containers for internal organs. Finally, the entire totality of bones included in the skeleton represents the system of levers, which, being led by the action of muscles, produce body movements and its parts.

The skeleton consists of connective tissue, which includes cells and intermediates.

By the nature of the intermediate substance, the connecting tissue can be divided into three types:

o. the fibrous connecting tissue has an intermediate consisting of fibers - then the fabric will be soft and flexible;

o. cartilage - tight-elastic connecting tissue;

o. bone - solid fabricimpregnated with lime salts.

If bone tissue is treated with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, It remains one organic substance of the bone (the so-called Osein), thanks to which the bone becomes soft and flexible. If, on the contrary, remove ossein by calcining the bone on fire, then the bone ash (lime salts) will remain, which, while maintaining the outer shape of the bone, is very fragile and breaking.

The connection of these both substances is organic and inorganic and gives the bones of hardness and fortress together with a known degree of elasticity.

The bones are divided into: long, short, wide (flat) and mixed.

Long - bones whose size in length exceeds all other dimensions. Long bones are in those places where fast and extensive movements occur, as the longer the lever, the greater the movement (limbs). In long bones there are two more or less thickened end and then a medium cylindrical or prismatic part called bone body. This middle part Bones represents a tube inside which the bone marrow is on fresh bones. As a result, long bones are called tubular bones.

Short bones have limited sizes in all three directions and are found where the movements are not large (the vertebrae from which the spine is composed).

Wide bones have the greatest stretch of two directions: in length and width, while their thickness is insignificant. They serve to limit cavities (skull bones).

Mixed bones are called such that cannot be fully connected under the above groups, but represent a combination of signs of one or another group simultaneously or have absolutely wrong shape (face bones).

The surface of the bones, due to the influence of the surrounding authorities, is very diverse. Muscles and bundles, attaching to the bones, impose their mark on them in the form of bugs, protrusions, processes, roughness, etc. The more developed muscles, the stronger the protrams on the surface of the bones are expressed. Therefore, the bones of women who have muscles are generally weaker, have a smoother surface than men's bones.

Other organs, leaned to the bones or passing through them, leave on them imprints in the form of a fossa, grooves and through holes. Where bones come into contact with each other, they are smooth articular surfaces covered on fresh bones of the layer of cartilage.

If you cut the bone, then it can be noted that the bone weight of heterogeneous: it consists of a spongy and dense substance. The spongy substance occupies the inner part of the bone and consists of subtle bone crossbars crossing between themselves. The dense substance represents a compact bone mass lying outside the bone. W. long bones - The spongy substance is only in their ends, the walls of the side of the middle part of the bone are formed by an exclusively dense substance.

Thanks to such a bone device at the low material of the material, it is easily achieved with ease significant degree Strength. In the fresh state, the outer surface of each bone, with the exception of the articular surfaces, is ridiculed by a fibrous connective tissue with an antiquarian. In a deep layer, the nearest to the bone, the periosteum contains special cells, due to the activity of which there is an increase in the young bone in thickness, and the bone is restored when it is disturbed (for example, during fractures).

In addition to the coupling ability, the periosteum plays an important role in the dietary diet, since it is mainly of its part the blood vessels, penetrating through the holes on the surface of the bone and feeding it.

The inner cavity of tubular bones, as well as the gaps between the spongy crossbars are filled with a soft-shaped mass of yellow and red-bone marrow, which takes part in the nutrition and the groove of bone, and also plays a role in blood formation.

The bones entering the skeleton of an adult man get their final shape and no dimensions immediately; They pass long period development starting with early stage A germinal life and ending for about twenty-five years, when the formation of the bones ends and at the same time he stops the growth of the body.

The combination of bones between sobody can be: a vague and strip. In case of a honest connection, the bones are connected between them with a solid ligament mass, which may consist of either fibrous connective tissue, or from cartilage. Separate bundles or connective tissue plates connecting bones are called ligaments. Due to the elasticity of the cartilage and adhesiveness of the ligaments between the bones, some mobility is possible to more or lesser.

The most immobile from all bone compounds between them is the seam, by means of which the cranial bones are connected. Sheos represents one of the varieties of connecting bone connecting bones. With the help of seam bones are held in connection between them, mainly, in each other, the teeth, between which there is a slight layer of connective tissue. This kind of seam is called a toothed, or a true seam.

The number of false seams, which also occur also on the skull, there is a simple attachment of the edges of the bones to each other without jar, as well as the so-called scaly seam, when the edges of the contacting bones are cut off, and one of these edges comes to another.

The honest compound of the bones is formed by joints or joints of the bone, included in the articulation, are not connected between themselves with a continuous intermediate mass, as in a honest compound, but are separated from each other a narrow slit - the articulum of the cavity.

Contacting between their articular surfaces of the articular bones are covered with a smooth layer of cartilage, which, due to its smoothness, facilitates the movements of the bones relative to each other. The articular cavity outside closes the articular bag, which usually grows in the circumference of the joint surfaces, merging with the periosteum. The inner layer of the articular bag (synovial shell) highlights the tight sticky liquid - synovia, which serves as a lubricant with the articular surfaces of the bones.

Articulations are often supported by dense tap tissue - auxiliary bundles that go outside the articular bag, in more or less close touch With it, and attach to the bones next to the joint. In some joints, such bundles are also inside the joint (for example, in the knee joint).

The role of bonds is twofold:

1.hold crimshes in their position,

2.limit the movements in the joint in a certain direction.

In strengthening joints plays a role yet atmosphere pressureThanks to which the articular surfaces are tightly pressed ("squeezed") to each other. The tension of the muscles surrounding the joint also promotes the rapprochement of the bones.

The joints matter for plastics, because Many of them, located superficially, have a direct impact on external forms, and in addition, the knowledge of the structure of the joints makes it possible to understand the movements that they determine in different parts Body.

The articular surfaces of the articular bones usually more or less exactly match each other. When moving, one articular surface slides on another remaining fixed. In the form of articular surfaces and in the nature of the movements, several types of joints are distinguished: the joints are divided into semi-moving free.

The articular surfaces of the semi-propelled joint are usually more or less flat; The articular bag and auxiliary bundles are tightly stretched, as a result of which movements in such a joint are very insignificant. Movement in free joints are made around certain axes, which can be several. Therefore, the joints are distinguished with one, two and many axes.

Number of uniaxial joints includes a hinge, or block joint, built by the type of hinge. The articular surfaces of the bones, which are part of this joint, represent the segments of the cylinder, and one of them convex, and the other concave. The cylindrically convex articular surface, called the block, is equipped with a middle of the groove, respectively, which on the concave articular surface there is a scallop. Movement occurs around the axis of the cylinder formed by the unit. Since this axis is perpendicular to the long axis of the joint bones, the movement in the block joint consists only in flexion and extension (the joints of the fingers of the hand).

If the axis of movement in the joint with cylindrical joint surfaces coincides with the long axis of the articular bones, i.e. When the hinge is vertically, there is a rotation of the bone along the longitudinal axis inside and outward and then the so-called proven joint is obtained (rotation of the radial bone in the articulations of it with the elbow bone).

Two-axis joints include egg-shaped joint. The articular surfaces of this joint have an ovoid form: one of them is convex, and the other is concave. Movement occurs around two perpendicular to each other axes; Flexion and extension (as in the hinge joint) and lateral displacement (bringing and leading).

The articulation with many axes represents a spherical joint. One of the joint surfaces of this joint forms a spherical head, and the other is a concave articular depression. This kind of joint is the most mobile and free of all articulations. Movements in it can occur around all sorts of axes. Around the transverse axis there is bending and extension, around the axis, which runs backwards, the lead and bringing, around the vertical axis - the rotation inside and outward.

There is also more roundabout Circulationin which the moving bone describes a cone with a vertex in the articular cavity. Most bright example Spherical articulation serves shoulder joint.

Features of the structure of muscles

Muscles - active organs Movement. They cover the skeleton outside and connecting with its bones that are included in its composition, playing the role of levers, lead in the movement of the bone, which, in contrast to them, are passive movement bodies.

Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells - muscle fibers - dark and light transverse strips. With a reduction, the light strips are reduced, and the dark expands, as a result of which the fibers are shortened and at the same time become thicker. In each muscle distinguish:

o. muscle body - bunch of red-brown fibers (meat),

o. tender, through it, the muscle is attached to the bones.

Tender consists of dense fibrous connective tissue and has a brilliant yellow-white color. The tendon, as consisting of connective tissue, cannot be reduced - the abbreviation force of the muscles of the bones is transmitted through it. The tendon is located at both ends of the muscle; Sometimes it is very shortening and then it seems that the muscle begins or attaches to the dice directly by its meat.

Sometimes besides the tendons in their ends of the muscle can have the so-called intermediate tendon throughout its body. Such tendons, if multiple, are called tendon jumpers.

The shape of the muscles is rather diverse. There are long, short, wide and circular muscles.

Long muscles (on the limbs) often have a spine-like shape, and the average part is called a belly, one of the ends is called the head, and the other - the tail. Long muscle tendons have the type of laces or narrow tape.

Short muscles are locked in significant quantities in the spine area between the vertebrae.

Wide muscles are preferably located on the torso. They have an appropriate extended tendon called tendon stretching, or aponeurosis.

Circular muscles (skin muscles) surround the holes, narrowing them with its reduction (closers).

At one end or the beginning of the muscle is attached to a more or less stationary point, and by another, called attachment, to the movable one. Such a division is conditional in nature, since with the same mobility of both items, the beginning and attachment can be called any of the ends of the muscle. When the muscle is reduced when it is shortening, the movable point of attaching the muscle is attracted to a fixed one, as a result of which movement in the appropriate body of the body. With the same mobility of attachment points, one of them must be previously strengthened by the action of other muscles, then the movement occurs towards a more fixed point.

In most cases, muscle, attaching to the bones, roll through the joints, in which, due to the action of the muscles, and the corresponding movements are performed. Since the movements in the joints occur usually in two directions (flexion - extension, bringing - aid and so on), then two muscles are needed on the opposite sides of the joint to move around any one axis in the joint. Such muscles acting exactly opposite to each other are called antagonists. Rarely movement in one or another side is caused by one muscle, more often it is produced by several muscles, which are in this case are called synergists.

Properties of muscles. The muscle is reduced by the influence of the nervous impulse, which goes to it by a motor nerve from the brain. For single irritation going on the side of the nervous system, it is followed by a quick single muscle contraction, after which it relaxes. With repeated, quickly following each other, the muscles in the intervals do not have time to relax, as a result of which it is all the time in a shortened intense state, which is called the name of the tetanus. During the rest of the muscles are in light condition Reducing under the influence of pulses from the nervous system - physiological muscle tone.

Under the influence of muscle exercises increase in its volume. After death in the muscles, the corpse stuff begins. The muscles that were previously soft and relaxed are solid, members of the corpse in the joints can be bent only with great strength, the body stuff comes usually 5-6 hours after death and passes with the beginning of the corpse.

Muscles, dressing skeleton, determine the external body configuration. People of muscular and incomplete outlines of the muscles are drawn through the skin. Muscles, causing the movement of the body and its parts in space, have their influence and on the change in its surface, which looks different depending on whether the muscles are reduced or not.

When cutting muscle relief increases, it forms a sharper protrusion on the surface of the body than at rest, whereas at the site of the inconvenient tendon is formed. In cases where the superficially located tendons of long muscles are strongly stretched with muscle contraction, they usually protrude through the skin in the form of heavy, which can be seen, for example, on the rear of the handmade brush when straightening the fingers.

Features of the structure of external covers

The skin is the most superficial layer of the body, the floor, the age, health, illness and many other conditions impose on it. The skin gives the body the final modeling, smoothing the relief under the muscles and bones. With muscles and superficially lying bones, the skin is associated with a subcutaneous fat layer consisting of loose fibrous connective tissue in which the fat is laid. Thanks to the fat, the color of the subcutaneous fat layer is yellow. The subcutaneous layer, due to the loosenness of the connective tissue, is distinguished by stretchability, which allows it to be knitted with it to shift over deeper by lying parts. Bass of fat B. subcutaneous layer And its thickness can be different depending on the region, the state of nutrition and, finally, from the floor and age. For normal conditions fat fabric Slies B. the greatest quantity On palms, soles and buttocks, where it serves as an elastic pillow, protecting deeper parts from squeezing. On centuries and ear shell in the subcutaneous layer, there is absolutely no fat.

The more the fat is deposit in the subcutaneous layer, the evenness becomes the surface of the body, since the absorbing fat masks the muscles and smoothes all irregularities and recesses. Under the reverse conditions when the spare nutritious material is spent (with hunger strike or depleting diseases), fat may disappear almost completely; And if at the same time they are reduced in its volume and muscle, then all the ledges of the skeleton are sharply denoted through the skin. That in the strongest degrees of weight loss leads to such a state, which is called "leather and bones" on the people's figurative language.

According to the relative amount of fat in the subcutaneous layer, both sexes are sharply different from each other. The body of a man is poorly fat than the body of a woman, as a result of this outline of the muscles and bones, they perform more dramatically and distinctly. A woman fat in subcutaneous fabric is developed much more abundant than that of a man, especially in the cities of the pelvis and on the hips. This circumstance, in connection with the rather weak development of the muscles in a woman, determines the smoothness and roundness of the forms of the female body.

In children early age The subcutaneous fat layer is well developed; Having enveloped the child's body uniform layer, it gives it a characteristic configuration.

The color and other properties of the skin itself depends on its structure. The skin is composed of two layers: superficial - peel, and a deeper skin-forming skin in his own sense. Skin consists of cells called epithelial. The most upper layers of these cells are protected and separated in the form of flat whitish scales. In the deeper layers of peel, consisting of juicy cells, is in the form of a brown pigment.

Actually, the skin consists of fibrous connective tissue and forms on its outer surface the protrusions or nipples that go into the skin. In the actual skin, there are very thin tubes - the vessels in which blood flows; These vessels are absent in the skin.

Both leather layers are more or less transparent, as a result of which translucent through the surface layers of a red blood color in the vessels of the skin actually and the drow-yellow color of the pigment of the skin of the skin (white, red and yellow, red, red and yellow paint) is mixed. According to the strengthening of one or another of these colors, skin coloring is modified depending on various conditions. Northern Europeans, blondes, local body tone usually - pale pink-yellowish. Brunettes, southern residents and color races, due to more skin pigment, skin coloring gets various shades, ranging from yellowish, dark and ending black or black and brown Negro leather. Under the influence of the rays of the Sun and the northern inhabitants, the amount of pigment may increase with the appearance of a dark skin color in those places that have been exposed to sun ray (Tan).

In those places of the body, where the leather layer of thin and is transparent, and the vessels of the skin actually are numerous, - is observed more or less bright staining In the red color, what we have on the lips. From the same reason, the blush of the cheeks in young healthy people. Redness of the skin can occur from the temporary expansion of the skin vessels (shame paint, when the blood suddenly sticks to the face). On the contrary, when the skin of the skin vessels (in fainting or at a small blood), the skin becomes pale.

The bluish color is also observed in some places. It depends on the transmission through the pale colored layers of the skin of the dark red blood contained in the venous vessels. Large vessels lying in the subcutaneous layer are visible in the form of blissful raw materials in various fields (on the back of the hand). These subcutaneous veins are noticeable than older age And the weaker the subcutaneous fat layer is developed. Therefore, they are not issued in children and young women, with whiteness and fineness of the skin of the latter only thin blue veins shine. The same origin of Syane under the eyes (from fatigue or other reasons). Through thin skin The century is shifting the pie muscle, which due to the delay in the outflow of venous blood becomes dark red, as a result of which a bluish or purple tone appears.

In addition to yellowish, reddish, and places of bluish tones, in the color of the skin, mainly on the shaded side of the body, there are still greenish halftone occurring due to the mixing of blue rays of scattered light with a yellowish tone depending on the skin pigment.

The skin has some glossiness and as a result, it glitters, reflecting the falling light in the form of glare. The glossiness of the skin depends on the moistening by its secretions of sweat and song hardwarewhich, laying in the skin, open with small holes on its surface (when blocking the holes of these glands, the so-called acri are formed).

Skin thickness is uneven. Leather thicker on palms and soles, where in particular thick layer Leather. In the same places under the influence physical work Or pressure (for example, pressure shoes in the foot) develop corn, representing local thickening of the peel. The skin is thicker on the back, than in front of the body. On the extensitive side of the joints, the skin is thicker than on bending. Women's skin And the skin of children is characterized by its subtlety, tenderness and smoothness. The skin of men is thicker and coarse, as well as more noise than the skin of women.

Hair - make up the derivative of the skin. The rod of the hair consists of burritable cells containing pigment, from which the hair color depends. The bottom end, or root, the hair is sitting in the deepening of the skin - the hair bag. A small muscle is attached to the bag, straightening hair, which conventional conditions It is oblique (from its reduction depends the appearance of the so-called goose skin under the action of cold). Hair in large quantities are found only at certain places: the head, on the chin and the upper lip in men, in armpits and on the pubis; On the rest of the skin are located rare hair. On the palms and soles, the skin is completely devoid of hair. Aesthetic importance has hair on her head, as well as a mustache and beard in men.

The color can be distinguished by five main hair types: 1) black, 2) dark brown, 3) light-brown, 4) blond and 5) redheads. There is also a lot of intermediate shades. To the old age, the hair is gray. The reason for this is the disappearance of the pigment, and in the development of air-containing slots in the thickness of the hair.

Hair shape is also diverse: straight, wavy and curly. On the skin in various places, grooves, folds and sneakers are noticed. Some of them are constant, others occur when driving and then smoothed. On the face of grooves and folds arise as a result of muscle acting attaching to the skin.

The skin when cutting the muscle is delayed and folds and folds, which are perpendicular to the direction of muscle traction. In children and young people, due to the elasticity of the skin, folds after the cessation of muscle cuts disappear without a trace. With age, the elasticity of the skin is reduced, with repeated cuts in the muscles in the same direction of folds and grooves become permanent (wrinkles). The formation of grooves and folds on the body and limbs has a different origin. The folds in these places are formed passively, due to the offshifting of the skin, loosely associated with the subjectibles. When some movement occurs (throwing the head back), the skin on one side folds into the folds, and on the other - it is stretched; With the slope of the body forward, transverse folds above the navel and so on.

At the end of the movement, the formed skin folds are usually smoothed. As for the grooves and pits, they, mostly, are constant and depend on the more dense skin of the skin in the area of \u200b\u200btheir location with the deepensing parts: bones, fascia or tendons over which the skin is placed. The grooves are usually formed on bends (on the palm side of the fingers and the palm itself, the groove groove, or a fold). The longitudinal grooves or hollows, walking along the midline on the front and back of the body, and dividing the latter on the front and the back of the body and dividing the latter on the back side of the elbow on the rear side of the elbow full women and pits in the field of rear protrusions pelvic bones). Since these holes come from a blowing skin with deep parts, they become the deeper than the fat under the skin under the skin in their circumference. It also applies to furrocks.

plastic face skeleton joint torso

Features of the structure of the head

SKELETON

Bone base of the head - skull covered thin layer Soft fabrics, which has a big impact on the outer forms of the head and face. The skull is divided into two departments: a brain and facial skull.

The brain skull serves as container for the brain and is formed by eight bones, which, connecting motionless among themselves, surround the cranial cavity in itself. The costect box of the brain skull can be divided into a convex part, or a skull cord that covers from above and from the sides of the brain, and the base that supports the brain is below; Through its foundation, the brain skull is in front of the front with the bones of the facial skull, and behind the spine.

1.the occipital bone forms the bottom of the ceremony of the brain skull. On its underside lying on the basis of the skull, there is a rounded-oval large occipital opening, by means of which the skull cavity is reported to the spinal Channel. On the sides of this hole lie two oval-convexed mysteries, with which the skull is articulated with the first cervical vertebra. On the outer surface of the wide part of the occipital bone, called the scales, in the middle there is a bold hill. The scales of the occipital bone are connected by means of a gear resembling the letter L, a lambudidic seam with both dark bones

2.dump bones make up their average and the largest part of the cranial arch. On the outer surface of each of them, in the middle, there is a protrusion, more noticeable in young people, - a parmer borger. Dark bones, adjustable with their rear edges to the occipital, are connected to their front edges with a frontal bone, forming with her also toothed sputs. The upper edges of dark bones are connected to each other in a longitudinally coming along the middle line of the sagittal cranium, or inter-flat, seam. The lower edges of the dark bones are adjacent to the greater length of the temporal bones, forming a scaly seam.

.the temporal bones take part in the formation of a brain skull in its lower part of it. On their surface, on each side, a rounded-oval hole can be seen - an outer hearing alers located on the place where the living has an ear. Behind the auditory passage is the Book of a thick maternity process, and ahead is a zicky proof, connecting with the zoomy bone. Front on a small mass of the temporal bone and the bottom edge of the dark bones are connected on the other side with the process

.wedge-shaped bone, which, the rest of the world, fully lies on the basis of the skull as well as

.small lattice bone.

.the frontal bone closes in front of the brain skull, it has the greatest plastic value, the gap as a vertically located convex quiver part of this bone, called the scales, forms the bone base of the forehead. Scales, connecting at the top of a served edge with dark bones, downstairs over the sides ends with two supervised edges that limit the opening of the orphanage. The outer ends, which, pass into the zillya process, which is connected to the zicky bone. Between the supervised edges, the lower edge of the frontal bone forms a ledge - a nasal part. This part is connected to the overhead bones and nasal bones, with the formation of the nose root. Since the frontal bone hangs over these bones, then in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nose root, an exhaust is obtained separating the forehead from the nose. ** Ancient Greeks with aesthetic targets I ignored this recess, depicting forehead on your statues and nose on one straight line (the so-called Greek profile).

Above the overall edges are the abnormal arcs, the magnitude of which depends on the degree of development of the bones of empty spaces under them in the thickness of the bone, called frontal sinuses. Between the inspection arcs in the middle line, there is a sleek area of \u200b\u200bthe triangular outlines - superchard. Above the above-mentioned arcs on the sides of the midline are visible to the frontal bumps, representing the most convex places of forehead, the most pronounced in children and women.

The costect box of the brain skull, if you look at it from above, has an ovoidal outlines with long longitudinal and short transverse dimensions, and a narrower end of the oval is facing a kleon, and a wider place. The relative increase or decrease in these sizes leads to the appropriate elongation or shortening of the cranial oval, according to what the skull is divided into: long (dolichocephalic) and short (brachiocephalic). Average form Between these extreme degrees is called mesopholy.

The skull arch appears to be smooth, evenly curved in the head-back direction, and its front part forms the forehead, the middle is the topics, and the back - the back. From the sides of the cork, the skull is slightly compressed by means of two so-called temporal holes, which in the direction of the book are gradually deepening. The upper boundary of the temporal holes is the temporal line, which begins on the bile head of the frontal bone in the form of a rough arc, stretches on the parietal bone and, beating the book and the kaperi, ends with a mastoid process. At the bottom, each of the temporal pits is limited to a zillyan arc, which is composed of the connection of the zhulic process of temporal bone with a zilly bone.

In addition to the temporal holes on the surface of the custal arch - hillocks (front of two frontal, from the sides of two dark, located in the widest place of the skull, and, finally, behind - the occipital hill, lying on the border with the base of the skull) and the seams. ** At bald people, seams are sometimes denoted through the skin in the form of hollow and protrusions.

From the interlayers of the connective tissue, which are in the seams, there is an increase in cranial bones, and in transversely reaching seams (grilled and labradoid) skull grows in length, and in longitudinal seams - in width. When the growth of the skull ceases, the connecting tissue is pinched and the seams will overcome (40-45 years of age and starts with a sagittal seam). ** often observed the preservation of seams and in old age. There is also a premature contraction of seams in young age. If such premature seams will occur in part, then with continued growth, various kinds of deviations are obtained from the normal shape of the skull. So, when the longitudinal seams are infected, the skull is excessively increasing in length, depending on the growth in its transverse seams, and when the latter is infected, it is shortened and pulled up too much. Partial suture ingrowth on some one side entails the skull asymmetry, sometimes very sharp. **

The facial skull has a number of cavities for the premises of some senses and the initial parts of the digestive and respiratory organs. It is adjacent to the brain front and bottom, forming a bone basis of the middle and lower part of the person, while the skeleton of the upper part of the last (forehead) is formed by a frontal bone belonging to the brain skull. Thus, they distinguish the face in the ordinary sense of the word (with her forehead) and the face in an anatomical sense (without forehead).

The facial skull consists of fourteen bones, which are grouped in the circumference of the cavities in it: two glazers, nasal and oral cavities. Thirteen of these bones are still connected both between them, and with the front of the base of the brain skull, constituting one whole. The fourteenth bone is the lower jaw - connects with the base of the skull through the rolling articulation. Of the thirteen bones, the bone base is only those that lie superficially, namely:

o. two topless,

o. two zoomy

o. two nasal bones.

The maxillary bones are the largest of all the bones of this part of the facial skeleton; The rest of the bones serve only their addition. On the front surface of the maxillary bone there is a small flat deepening - a dog, or a fanging, a fossa, directly above which is visible to the porcier. The dog is a plastic value - it can be deeper or completely flat. On the turtles of long-haired people, it is noticeable through the skin. Above the under-judicial hole is horizontally located the lower chamber of the maxillary bone, which limits the opening of the socket. On the side of this edge goes into a zyloma proof, connecting with the sinyl bone, and inside the directly moving in the frontal process, which goes back and its upper edge is connected to the frontal bone, and the front-with the nasal bone. In its internal edge, the front surface of the maxillary bone has a deep nasal clipping, which limits the hole leading to the nasal cavity. At the bottom of the front surface goes into a dental process. The dental proceeds of the left and right topless bones, connecting together in the midline, form a convex turning arc on which the teeth are located. From the inside of the upper-leaf bone, he leaves in the form of a horizontal plate with a pavement, which, connecting with the same process of the other side and with a sky bone.

Nasal bones - two small slightly curved quadrangular bones that make up the upper part of the nose back. They lie on each other in the interval between the nasal part of the frontal and frontal process of the maxillary bones. These bones are subject to quite large variations in their size and outer form, which determines the shape of the nose. For big noses They are developed most strongly, the drinks, on the contrary, are shortened. ** Nasal bones from above, and the nasal cuttings of the maxillary bones from the sides, limit the pear-like hole - the entrance to the nasal cavity. At the lower edge of the pear-shaped hole in the midline, where both topless bones are converged, there is a sharp protrusion of anterior nose.

Skylobic bones are represented by two side supports, which, connecting with the upper-lee bones, then go to the side of the connection with the frontal and temporal bones. The compound of the zilly bone on each side with the temporal forms a zicky arc, which is pulled by the stop to the auditory passage, making up the lower border of the temple. The front surface of the zick bone is formed by its bulk, and its other surface is internal - addressed to the eyeboard. Zylovy bones, located superficially under the skin along the face contour line, have very great importance for plastics, especially since they are subject to quite numerous individual changes. ** The stronger the bones are issued, the wider and, at the same time, the face is harmed; On the contrary, with less developed zilly bones and few protruding bile arcs face has more noble outlines. ** Skylobic bones together with neighboring bones take part in the formation of eyeboards, which serve for the premises of the organs of the vision - eye.

The sockets are located under the frontal bone. Each of Lych is like its form of a hollow four-sided pyramid, the foundation of which, forming an entrance to the eye, is addressed to the Kepened, and the top of the stop and somewhat inside. The entrance or opening of the soccer has a round or quadrangular with rounded corners. The upper edge of the opening of the eyelid is formed by a frontal bone, and the lower ones have with the outer and inner edges - the zilly and upper-eyed bones. The upper and lowerland edges lie somewhat obliquely from the inside of the dust, while the outer and the inner edge of the orbit is almost vertically.

The lower jaw is divided into the body having an arc shape and two ascending branches, which in the uppermost end of deep cutting are divided into two processes - cornpox and articular. The bearer is located in front and has the shape of the hook flattened from the sides, and the articulated under the rear and ends up the above-oval articular head. The branches at the bottom edge form an angle with the body, almost direct in middle-aged people and stupid in newborns and toothless old people. A slightly thickened bottom edge of the body lies at the level of the lower boundary of the face and is traced through the covers in the entire length. The upper body of the lower jaw (dental process) on its free edge carries the lower teeth. In the middle of the front surface of the body of the lower jaw is a chin exaltation, which is the basis for the chin. It can be more, then less coming forward, maybe it is narrow, then wide.

The articulation of the lower jaw with the base of the skull - the mandibular joint - is formed by the articular head of the lower jaw and the articulated straw on the temporal bone. The movements that the lower jaw in this joint, the Trojkoy Sgorode:

) raising and lowering with the simultaneous discovery and closure of your mouth;

) shift forward and back;

) Movement in the sides (right and left).

The lower jaw and the maxillary bones with the teeth sitting in them form a chewing device around the oral cavity. In accordance with the shape of the jaws of jaws, the teeth are located two arcuate rows, and the upper one comes somewhat behind the lower. ** Observed oblique position The front teeth that can achieve such an extent that they are no longer covered with lips. The strong oblique position of the teeth, by the way, is characteristic of some color races (Melanesians).

In each teeth distinguish the crown - a part placed free in the oral cavity and the root immersed in the jaw cell. In an adult, the number of teeth, if they are all evident, thirty-two. Each jaw has four cutters, two fangs, four small indigenous and six large indigenous teeth. Cutters and fangs have the greatest importance, because they are most visible with the open mouth. Cutters occupy the middle of the dental processes of the jaws. They are characterized by bit-shaped crowns. The largest is the middle upper cutters, then the upper side side, the lower cutters are the smallest.

Fangs that are outside the incisors are the longest; The crown of them, convex in front, has a cone-shaped form. Crowns of fangs somewhat protruding from a number of other teeth. The indigenous teeth have several tuberkins on the chewing surface of their crowns (two - in small indigenous and four - in large). ** Children are born to light without teeth, as a result of which their jaws are not fully developed, since the dental processes are absent, and the lower jaw with its branches is forms a stupid angle. Due to this underdevelopment of the chewing apparatus, the front skull in newborns is very small compared to the brain, especially in the vertical direction. In old age, depending on the loss of teeth, the disappearance of the dental processes of the jaws is also occurred. **

The lower jaw is subject to particularly sharp changes. The upper part of her body is disappearing together with dental cells, and the jaw becomes lower and the angle of it is dumber. From this, the elderly chin is issued ahead and approaches the nose.

Thus, due to the disappearance of teeth and dental processes, bottom part Persons in old people are shortened, which brings them closer with the peculiarities of the front skull of newborns.

There are 2 variations of the facial skull to be noted two types:

Lengolithic (Dolichecephalves) have a high forehead, long, narrow face with little bone-emitted bones.

In short (with brachiocephalius) - a wide low forehead, outstanding cheekbones and a shorter face in the vertical direction. There are also intermediate forms.

Cerebral skull like brain carrier symbolizes spiritual principle, and facial skull, - symbol of animation, so well developed cerebral skull with high Lohn. Always the impression of intelligence and spirituality, the skull with a low or lowered forehead and protruding jaws gives a low-lying character.

The ratio of the facial skull to the brain is determined by the measurement of the so-called kamper facial angle, which is formed by a line that comes from convex points of the forehead and the upper jaw on the intersection with a line conducted from the anterior nose to an external auditory passage. If the face angle is less than 80 °, then it will be the so-called prenature, that is, more or less strong performance of the jaws forward, if more than 80 °, then orthogans, when such a speech is less pronounced.

The skulls of some color races are distinguished by progeaty, while Europeans skull is more orthognich. Children's skull due to the underdevelopment of the jaw differs orthognoticity. The head of the ancient statues, in the presence of the so-called greek profile, often have a facial angle of 90 ° and more, that is, more than it takes place in nature. The reason for this feature lies in the desire of ancient Greek artists to emphasize the highest intellectuality of their gods and heroes.

Usually a female skull is less than a male; The facial part of the skull in a woman in relation to the brain skull is less than that of a man (although a moderate degree of progeting in a woman is more common for a woman).

The arch of the female skull in the area of \u200b\u200bthe pattern is noticeably compacted, this flattening is quite cool goes into the forehead line and the backbone; In men, the vault profile seems to be more evenly rounded and the themes above.

Muscles

Muscles can be 2 types:

1.thin and small, starting from the bones, attach to the skin and pull it out with its reduction - the Mimic muscles.

2.chewable - attach to the lower jaw leading it in motion with its reduction.

Mimic muscles are located on the height of the skull and on the face. The muscles of the Skull Vault represent one abandoned muscle that is divided into separate parts. All these parts merge with tendon stretching, or cranial aponeurosis, which like the helmet clothes the cranial arch. Being loosely connected to the bones of the skull, the cranial aponeurosis grows with the skin of the head, as a result of which he moves along with her under the influence of the reduction of the muscles connected to it.

The back of the abandoned muscles, the occipital muscle, is located in the back of the skull, starting from the occipital bone and then pass the top in the cranial aponeurosis, which she pulls the stop along with the skin, as opposed to the frontal muscle that makes the opposite movement.

The side part of the abandoned muscles on the other side is represented by three small weak muscles attached around the ear.

Mimic muscles on the face are grouped around the openings of the eyes, mouth and nose. Above the eye area on the forehead is the frontal muscle, which begins in front of the cranial aponeurosis, descends down and inward, taking off with his pair, and attached to the skin of the eyebrows. The inner beam of this muscle is attached on the nasal bone, forming a pyramidal muscle. With its reduction, the frontal muscle raises an eyebrow up, making it arcuate, and forms cross-line folds on the forehead parallel to eyebrows. It also moves the kleon of cranial aponeurosis along with the skin of the scalp. The pyramidal muscle, shrinking, tightens the skin of the inter-block interval along with the inner end of the eyebrows, and causes the formation of short transverse folds overlap.

The eye slit is surrounded by the ring-shaped circular muscle of the eye, one part of which lies on the bone edge of the orbit, and the other in the thicker. Both parts of the circular muscles of the eye can act separately. A part belonging to the centuries is closed (squinting and blinking). The outer or orphanage of the muscle causes its reduction to the appearance of wrinkles in the outer angle of the eye when grilled. The upper fibers with an isolated reduction tightening the book of his forehead with an eyebrow, giving their eyes a straightforward shape, and the transverse wrinkles are smoothed on the forehead (the effect of this muscle is exactly opposite to the action of the frontal muscle). The lower fibers of the eyes of a circular eye muscle pull up the top of the cheek, forming a groove between the cheek and the lower eyelid.

Under the eyes of the circular eye muscles at the top there is a small pair of muscle - wringer eyebrows. It begins at the inner end of the outbreak arc of the frontal bone and, heading the sideline, attaches to the skin of the eyebrows. With its reduction, it brings his eyebrows between him and causes education vertical wrinkles In the interbranch interval overlap.

The base of the pocket of the pocket from the oral hole is formed by a flat and thin laboratory muscle, starting from the dental processes of the upper and lower jaw on the other side; Ahead, at the corner of the mouth, it merges with the circular muscle of the mouth (the muscle does not play any role in the Mimic). Its main thing is that it squeezes out the contents of the mouth (when playing brass instruments). In the circumference of the mouth there are still other muscles, which, stretching the oral hole in different directions, are antagonists of the circular muscle of the mouth. The movements caused by them are of great importance to facial expressions. All these carp muscles.

On the corner of the mouth from above, a fanging muscle is suitable, originating from the vertex of the maxillary bone of the same name. From above and on the side - the skull muscle, and just on the side, as the continuation of the upper beams of the subcutaneous muscles of the neck, the laughter's muscle (or rather, smiles) Santorini. A triangular muscle comes from the bottom to the angle of the mouth, which starts a wide base from the middle part of the edge of the lower jaw. These muscles, with its reduction, pull the corner of the mouth upwards, Walk and the Book.

To the upper lip, as well as to the wing of the nose, the square muscle of the upper lip is attached, which originates with several beams from the zilly bone, the lower edge of the society and the frontal process of the maxillary bone. She pulls the wing of the nose and the upper lip board and sob. The opposite of her - the square muscle of the bottom lip goes from the lower jaw, partly covered with a triangular muscle, to the lower lip, which she pulls down the book and sob.

In the field of chin there is a pair chiffering muscle, which begins in the area of \u200b\u200bthe cells of the front teeth of the lower jaw, will go down and inward, converges with their pair, and it is attached to the skin of the chin, which the muscle raises up and wrinkles (due to the special modification of his skin soften, determines It is also a hole that occurs in some people on the chin).

From the upper jaw in the field of lateral cutters on each side there is a nasal muscle, one part of the fibers of which goes on the back of the nose and connects there with the same muscle of the other side, and the other part of the fibers is attached to the edge of the cartilage of the nasal wing. The first part of the nasal muscle squeezes the nose, and the second expands the nostril.

Chewing muscles. There are four of them on each side: actually chewing, temporal, internal and outer wing muscles.

The first three attract the lower jaw to the top, i.e. Close the mouth and closure teeth. The latter - the outer wonderland muscle, shrinking on both sides, highlights the lower jaw forward, and when cutting on one side, it shifts it to the right or left.

Two of them have a plastic value.

) Actually chewing muscle - a thick quadrangular muscle begins on the bones, it goes down with its fibers and a few kice and attached on the outer surface of the lower jaw at her angle. The contours of this muscle are clearly noticed through the skin in the back of the cheek with the movements of the lower jaw.

) The temporal muscle takes the entire space of the skull's temporal pit, it takes place under a zhulic arc and a strong tendon attaches to the Vernalochny jaw process. The muscle from the surface is covered with a strong temporal fascia, which, starting from the temporal line of the skull, grows downside with a zilly arc. Temple muscle, as well as fatty tissue, located in the temporal pit, more or less smoothed the latter.

Being under dense fascia, the temporal muscle does not form a noticeable relief during its reduction; You can only see the raising and lowering the skin of the temple under its influence in chewing movements.

Plastic

Rear maspress part Heads do not require a special description. The artist here deals with hair, color, form and location of which are individually very diverse, it can grab directly from nature.

The facial part of the head in terms of its structure is very complex and most important in plasticity.

The forehead is limited to the front edge of the scalp. Typically, this line has a wave-like view with convexes, facing forward - in the middle and the stop - in the side parts of the forehead. The front edge of the hairpiece passes in the form of an expedited back line to the temple area and ends in front of the ear. In children and faces youth age The edge of the hair descends slightly further on the forehead than in adults.

Book of forehead is limited by eyebrows. The LBA configuration depends on the underlying bone underlying in its basis - its width varies, bulge and direction relative to the horizontal plane. The forehead in young children is distinguished by the protrusion of the frontal bugs, below which it seems completely smooth, due to the underdevelopment of the abnormal arcs. Due to the weak development of the abnormal arcs in young people and women, their forehead is usually smooth and smooth, in particular, if at the same time the frontal bumps are not sharply issued. Such a forehead seems low when the border of the hair descends more kepenta. Absorption arcs are issued more in the elderly and, with a strong allocation, the forehead gives a slightly rude character.

Outside the forehead on the other side borders with the temple located on the side of the head. The border between them is formed by a bonal process of the frontal bone and the temporal line departing from it upstairs, which some people are clearly visible through the skin. At the bottom of the temple is limited to the zicky arc separating it from the cheek. In children I. full people The area of \u200b\u200bthe temple, due to the abundant development of fat, represents some convexity; People have sletish temple slightly populated; In subjects with an extreme degree of depletion, or in deep old age, the temple is even greater than, and the bone parts around its bone pieces - the sculpted arc and the rear edge of the bile head of the frontal bone are abruptly issued through the skin.

Under the lower border of the forehead, presented by eyebrows, on the other side is the eye area. The eye represents the organ of vision, consisting of eyeball and auxiliary parts that serve for its protection and movement. The eyeball is a ball-shaped body - lies in the eye chair and is in connection with the optic nerve, which comes from behind. The eyeball consists of three shells surrounding his inner transparent core. The most outdoor of these shells, a fiber casing, or a sclera, white color With bluish or, less often, yellowish tint. The front of it, visible through the eye slit, is known in everyday life under the name of the protein, from where its name takes place. Ahead of the buttercup goes into a transparent horny shell round shapewhich is inserted into the front department of the eyeball. Through the transparent cornea, a rainbow shell is visible, which represents the front continuation of the vascular casing of the eyeball, next for the protein. Rainbow shell has various coloring Depending on the amount of dark pigment located on its back. In the middle of the rainbow mug is a round hole in the form of a completely black spot - pupil. The pupil has the ability to narrow and expand from the action of light; With bright light, it is narrowed, and with weak light, it expands. The eyeball in front is covered with the upper and lower eyelids, which represent the genus of sliding shirm, protecting the eyes. The basis of each century consists of a dense coupling plate, called the cartilage of the century. The front surface of the cartilage of the century is covered with the inside of the circular muscle of the eye and the skin, and its surface is lined with the mucous membrane (conjunctival), which is worst on the eyeball. On the free edge of the age there are short hairs - eyelashes. With closed eyelids, the upper eyelashes cover the lower. There is an ocular slot between the free edges of the eyelids, the side edge of which is sharp, and the inner is rounded and forms the so-called tear lake. Inside the lake, a small pinkish color is visible - a tear meat, outside of which - a semi-lunar folding of the conjunctiva. Through the eye gap with open centuries, the front surface of the eyeball with a part of a protein shell, a cornea and, with a translucent, with a last, rainbow shell, in the center of which is a black pupil. A small cut of the cornea with a rainbow shell is covered with the upper century. At the bottom of its part of the cornea is visible entirely, as the region of the lowered lower century does not reach the lower edge of the cornea, opening a part of the protein. The cornea, despite its transparency, reflects from itself some of the rays of light, like the convex glass, as a result of which it is noticed on its surface light spot - light reflex, the place and the form of which depend on the position of the head in relation to the light source. The brilliance of the cornea is enhanced depending on more dark color The rainbow shell lying behind it (so black - "fire" eyes are more brilliant than light). On the brilliance of the eyes affects constant moisturizing their tear, which is released by a small tear piece of iron lying above the eyeball under top wall Elets. With a lack of tears of the cornea, the stringent, fade ( dead eyes). The open eye slit has a almond shape, in the closed state, it forms a convex book an arcuate line. The wider the eye slit, the more cornea, the more eyes, and vice versa.

In the place where skin with lowered upper century It goes to the top edge of the orbit, a canopy excavation is formed. It is deeper in the nose, which is the upper border of the upper eyelid; The lower boundary of the lower eyelid is denoted by an arcuate, convex bowl of the groove, located slightly above the lowerland of the lowerland. This groove is particularly sharply expressed at winding eyes (in old people or people exhausted). Often the inner half is more noticeable and the elderly people continue to the grooves going down on the cheek.

The region of the lower eyelid has a somewhat purple color. Strengthening this color, gives the eyes of a languid look.

When the eye is revealed, the lower eyelid is lowered only slightly under the influence of its own severity. The upper eyelid rises due to the reduction of the muscle attached to it, and part of it, containing and its thicker, is fitted under the overlying skin, which forms an arcuate cocer, located above the free edge of the century. Some people have a covering fold strongly hangs over the century, reaching his lower edge.

The skin's skin in young people is more or less smooth, later on it appear in a larger or smaller number of transverse small wrinkles; In particular, many such wrinkles, reaching radially, is formed in the outer corner of the eye ("goose paws").

Eyebrows are aroded along the uppergalznyh edges. In each eyebrows, the inner thickened end is distinguished, or the head lying near the root of the nose, and a thinner outer end is the tail, dodging the bone-bone snap. The form of eyebrows is very diverse.

The movement of the eyeball and the upper eyelid is made at the age of seven muscles laid in the eye, of which six are the top, internal, lower and outer straight, the upper and lower oblique muscles are attached to the eyeball and serve for its movements, the seventh - the upper eyelid lift - Attached to cartilage. All these muscles, with the exception of the lower scythe, originating on the bottom of the orphanage, begin in the depths of the society at its top.

The straight muscles rotate the eyeball around the two axes: transverse (upper and lower straight muscles), and the cornea is heading up or a book, and vertical (outer and inner straight muscles), when the cornea is drawn by the dudder or knutrice. The upper oblique muscle, rotating the eyeball, directs the cornea down and sobl; The lower oblique muscle at its reduction turns the cornea of \u200b\u200bthe sideline and up (when one eye moves into some side, another eye is also drawn at the same side).

When all the muscles of the eyeball are in uniform tension, the cornea (and therefore the pupil) looks straight ahead and the optical axes of both eyes stand in parallel to each other (when the distance is looking).

When considering items near the optical axes, the Kepened is converged, intersecting between themselves on the subject (the reduction of optical axes is the greater the closer the subject).

The nose is a need for a superstructure over the nasal cavity lying behind the pear-shaped hole of the facial skull. It distinguishes:

ü top, or nose root, which is separated from the forehead

ü rounded lower part - nose tip,

ü two sides, which converge in the midline, forming the back of the nose.

The lower edges of the nose side sides form nasal wings, which are limited from the sides of the nostrils that serve to pass the air into the nasal cavity. Nostrils are separated from each other in the middle line with a soft nasal partition. The side edge of each nasal wing is outlined by a curved groove separating it from the cheek. The base of the nose is formed by nasal bones and several cartilage. Chry the nasal partition - is located vertically in the middle line. Two triangular side cartilage are adjacent to it, which form side parts of the nose. In the thicker of the nasal wings, there is one small wing cartoiling and several small.

The skin covering the outside of the nose is connected with cartilage by means of a subcutaneous layer, imprisonment. The shape of the nose is very diverse.

Below the nose is the mouth, bordered by the upper and lower lips. The opening of the mouth in the closed state has a view of a transverse, slightly wave-like slit, the length of which is subject to significant individual oscillations.

Lips are two more or less thick folds consisting of the outside of the skin, and inside - from the mucous membrane containing muscle in its thickness. The location of the skin transition to the mucous membrane forms a so-called red border of the lips, located on her free edge. Bright red This kayma depends on the abundance of blood vessels and transparency of the peel in this place. Both lips are connected on each side with each other in places called the angles of the mouth.

The upper lip differs in its shape from the bottom. In the midline of it free land Forms an addressed Budrock, on the sides of which the free edge of the lips goes in the form of a flat, convex upward line to the corners of the mouth. Accordingly, Bugorku on skin surface The upper lip is a flat groove, (filter heading from the nasal septum to the middle of the red kayma) on which it forms a small recess. From this notch, the Red Kime goes to the sides, gradually falling on with its top edge to the corners of the mouth. The red border of the lower lip has a relatively simpler outline, and its lower boundary is in the form of an arched argent of the arc from one corner of the mouth to another, with a barely noticeable recess in the middle. At the angles of the mouth - a small fold, departing from the upper lip.

After the loss of teeth and the disappearance of dental processes in old age, lips, having lost their support for the stop, are wade and wrapped inside with their red border, as a result of which the latter becomes invisible. In addition, the leather of lips in the old people is made wrinkled, and the wrinkles are usually radially to the oral gap.

The upper lip is separated from the cheek neighboring with it on the other side of the nasolabial groove, which is formed due to the attachment to the skin of the square muscle of the upper lip. Nasolabial groove goes softened from side edge The wings of the nose of the book, lost its lower end from the corner of the mouth. In children and young women, the furridge is flat, in the elderly people, especially in men, it can be strongly in-depth, especially at its upper end.

Lower lip, with arc-lifting chief and lipotchka, separated from the chin.

The chin presents a rounded elevation, limited at the top of the furrow, and below the edge of the lower jaw; From the side of the chin goes into the lower part of the cheeks. The shape of the chin depends on the thickness of the subcutaneous layer, and on the shape of the lower jaw. Olders who have lost their teeth, and who have greatly atrophied the dental processes of the jaws, the chin is strongly protruding the Kepenta and even bends somewhat up, giving the face a characteristic senile profile.

The cheek represents the largest area of \u200b\u200bthe face. In front it borders with side part The nose and the nasolabial groove separating it from the upper lip. At the bottom, the border of the cheek walks along the edge of the lower jaw of the fence from the chin. The upper border of the cheek on the front corresponds to the lower edge of the orcamy and the zick bone, from the back - a zilly arc that separates the cheek from the temple. The back of his side of the cheek is adjacent to the ear of the ear. The basis of the cheek form upper and lower jaws, landscape and chewing muscles. Both muscles are not on the same level; The difference in their level is filled with more, then fewer adipose tissue.

In children and remedy people, due to the abundant clusters of the cheek, it seems convex and rounded, ranging from the nose and angle of mouth and almost to the ear. In moderately full of people rear end The cheeks over the chewing muscle are somewhat flattened relatively to the front convex part. A small smell is observed on the full cheeks, on the side of the angles of the mouth, comes from the attachment to the muscle of the laughter of Santorini. Sleepy people have cheeks in front of the chewing muscle, as a result of which the front edge of the latter protrudes more or less distinctly, as well as the encoder elevation. Slepty is visible on all its durable arc.

The ear is behind the cheek and consists of an ear shell and opening in the depths of the last auditory passage, which, in turn, is connected to the bone outdoor auditory passage of the skull. Own sink is formed by elastic chiffs, covered with skin. Its lowest part of it is an ear blade, does not contain cartilage and is a skin fold.

The outer shape of the auricle is very characteristic. The free edge of the sinks in its upper and the back is bent the kleand and inside, forming the so-called curl. The curl starts in front with two legs, of which the front arises from the skin of the cheek, and the rear of the deepening of the auricle. The roller coming parallel to the curl is called an arrangement, which is being divided into two legs, heading the shock and enter into a triangular fossa. The anti-lattice limits the rear of the ear shell in the front, on the front edge of which, in front of the auditory passage, there is a ledge - a goat, and then the stop, at the lower end of the opposite, another similar ledge - antiques. The goselves and antiques are separated by deep clipping. Upper, less deep clipping separates the gum from the front leg curl. Down below auricle Ends with a narrower rounded part, called the ear blade or earrings.

A beautiful, well-formed ear should have an oval shape, and its length should be approximately twice the width. All pits and elevations on such an ear must be well expressed and finely simulated. The ear also should not be very large (small ears are more beautiful than large) and not too defeating.

The shape of the ear shell and its details are subject to individual variations. Some people have no curls, thanks to which the owners of such an ugly form of ear are called root. With a partial absence of a curl of the ear can sharpen upwards, reminding the ear of animals. Ancient artists depicted commonly satriots and fans with pointed ears, attaching, however, the latter in the other details of human outlines. Darwinovsky Budrock, sometimes on the curls near his fold of the Kepende, - corresponds to the step of the ear in monkeys.

The ear blade should be separated from the skin of the cheek with a clearly noticeable cutting.

Ear position on the head:

) Own sink your long size It is vertically or has an easy tilt by the kice;

) Line, passing from the free edge of the nasal septum of the postproof, relates to the lower edge of the ear blast;

) The line, carried out in parallel with the outer angle of the eye, passes just through the place where the ear sink is separated from the temple;

) The upper end of the ear should not exceed the level of the upper chandeline edge.

Mimica

Mimica is facial changes due to mental experiences. Mimic movements are an external expression of mental states, and therefore have great value For art. In the Mimic movements, the whole body takes part, so along with the facial expressions, you can still distinguish the mimic movements of the body (postures) and hands (gestures).

Facial Mimic is caused by the first mimic muscles, which, with its reduction, move the skin of the face and cause changes to the physiognomy, giving a certain expression.

a) facialy eyes

The view is of great importance - a silent, but eloquent eye language. When looking away, the optical axis of the eyes stand in parallel, and when looking nearby, they converge with each other; In addition, the direction of the view is important. A view with converging axes, always takes place when observing or considering some item in front of the eyes. A view with parallel axes, directed right away, in infinity, is observed from dreamers or in general in people immersed in contemplation of deep things. The same look with parallel axes, but directed upward, usually with a raised head, expresses reverence or ecstasy. View upward with lowered head (view of improber) denotes secrecy, infractiveness or suspicion. A look directed by the rotation of the eye to the side, the "persecution of the sneak", which is thrown occasionally for the subject, to whom they want to hide.

Book look can have miscellaneous, depending on what position is head. The view facing the subject from top to bottom when the head was crowded back, gives the impression of pride or arrogance. A look at the same position of the head, but aimed at the opposite direction from the subject, means contempt, the eyes are often spoiled. The look directed by a book with a head-down, expresses modesty or shortness. The head goes down on the chest with the eyes of the book also when sorrow, despair and others spiritual states (called "hanging head").

The movements of the eyelids and eyebrows are also of great importance in the Mimic. Raising and lowering the upper eyelid, affecting the width of the eye slit, give a certain expression. Semi-finished upper eyelids, covering a more or less significant part of the cornea, give the face a tired, sleepy appearance, which, in the absence physical reasons For fatigue, serves as an indifference of indifference. Widely open eyes, due to the rise of the upper century, express attention. When strengthening attention, especially when it passes surprisingly, under the influence of the reduction of the frontal muscles of eyebrows, and horizontal folds appear on the forehead. Any surprise, causing amazement, entails an instant raising eyebrows with the formation of folds for the forehead; This movement is very pronounced, but lasts long. With stronger amazement, the mouth is revealed. The strongest degree of eye disclosure ("eyes got out", "climbed the forehead") and raising the eyebrows occurs when the amazement goes into horror.

Due to the strong raising of the upper eyelid, the top edge of the cornea comes out of it, over which can sometimes notice some of the protein. The mouth is revealed, the face pale, the features of him as it were, a shiver runs along the body. The inverse raising of eyebrows movement, that is, their lowering is made by the upper part of the circular muscle of the eye, which, tightening the eyebrow, smoothes the folds on the forehead and makes the straight-line eyebrow. Since the muscle shifting eyebrows is slightly reduced slightly, then two vertical folds appear in the interrambrospinal interval (in young people of these folds, due to the elasticity of the skin, it is not formed).

Hanging eyebrows, their horizontal and vertical folds between them are characteristic of expressing reflection. With a stronger cut in the muscles, it turns out the impression of a concentrated Duma or hard meditation.

If a muscle, wrinkling eyebrows, is strongly reduced, the inner end of the latter (head) rises, and the entire eyebrow takes an oblique position with some bend in the inside. In addition to vertical folds, transverse wrinkles are formed in the inter-bright gap. This position of the eyebrows happens when sorrowing, suffering, pain and is very characteristic of these severe spiritual experiences. The inner end of the eyebrows can also descend the book, due to tightening the skin of the interbranch interval by the action of the pyramidal muscle, and the transverse folds appear over it. In this case, the physiognomy acquires an expression of malice, hatred, threats (such an eyebrow position can be seen on all known images of Mephistople).

Mimica Mith

The stretching of the angles of the mouth of the duck and up the action of the muscle of the laughter of Santorini and the zick muscle determines the appearance on the face of the expression of joy. This expression may have several degrees depending on how much the angles of the mouth are stretched. With a light, barely noticeable degree of delaying, the face looks affectionate.

If the stretching of the angles of the mouth is more - a smile appears. Some individuals are formed on the side of the corner of the mouth of the stem, which gives a special sense of expression. If the angle of the mouth is delayed only on one side, then this is a forced smile, who has a person who is forced to smile when he is not to laughter.

With a strong stretching of the corners of the mouth to the side and the face is somewhat upwards becomes laughing.

Stretching with a laugh, mouth more or less opens, due to the upper lips with the action of its square muscle, as a result of which the upper teeth are exposed. The nasolabial fold is strongly deepened and forms in the upper two-thirds of the Book and Knutka with a slight bend at the bottom end. Due to pulling the angles of the mouth of the dust and upstairs, the skin of the cheek shifts in the direction of the sinylum to the lower edge of the orbit, from which somewhat shifts up the lower eyelid. For the same reason, the outer angle of the eye seems to be higher, and in its area there are very characteristic laughing wrinkles for laughter. For big cluster Fat under the skin of the face can be narrowed by the eye gap. Strong laugh is accompanied by sounds that when enhanced it can go into a loud laughter.

Mimicia Eyes and Mouth

The combination of a smile with a look up to the head with a raised head expresses admiration. A smile with a glance is improving or with a glance with a squeezing gives a shade of a judging or coquetry. Open eyes And raised eyebrows with horizontal folds on the forehead together with a laughing mouth - the highest degree of joyful surprise or tense, joyful attention.

The lowering of the angles of the mouth gives the face to the expression of sadness or a bad mood, which is commonly combined with a change in the eye area, that is, with raising the eyebrow heads and the appearance of vertical folds between them. If a bad mood is enhanced, crying appears. The lips begin to tremble, the triangular muscles are reduced, lowering the angles of the mouth, and then the square muscles. Due to the action of the latter, as well as the omission of the lower jaw, the mouth opens, and the lower teeth are exposed. The nasolabial fold forms an arcuate bend, concave processed inside. Eyes squinting or completely closed. The outer angle of the eye, respectively, the direction of the thrust of the muscles of the mouth, becomes noticeably lower than under normal conditions. Eyebrow heads are raised and between them are vertical folds.

Movement It is also combined with an expression of contempt in the area of \u200b\u200bthe eye, that is, with a pretty glance from top to bottom when the head, convert and side, opposed to the subject, is thrown back. The torso is also fed, the hands are lifted, as if wanting to remove the hated object.

Muscles of the mouth are also attributed to the volitional acts. Decisive, energetic people have usually tightly compressed lips. The stronger voltage of the will is accompanied by the same phenomenon. With a faithful expression of perseverance, stubbornness or perseverance, the jaws and teeth are squeezed, lips, due to the reduction of the circular muscles of the mouth, are tightly compressed, and the red border of them worst inside.

The mouth also takes part in the Mimic Wrath. Then the jaws and teeth are squeezed under the influence of the reduction of chewing muscles. With the highest degree of angry rage, teeth are raised. Raised nasal wings are inflated at reinforced breathing. Eye muscles are reduced. The eye slit is spinning, the eyes seek in the object of anger. Due to the reduction of the muscle, wrinkling eyebrows, and the circular eye of the eyebrows hang and the vertical wrinkles appear in the interval between them. The face of blood flies greatly, but may also be pale, due to the spasm of the vessels. The movement applies to other muscles of the body: the torso straightens and takes a threatening pose, the hands are compressed in the fists or grab different subjects. Affect of anger spreads almost all organism.

Mimica NOS.

Reducing the nasal muscle, in which folds are formed on the side surface of the nose, gives the impression of lust, especially in combination with an expression of attention and joy.

Features of the structure of the body

SKELETON

The main part of the skeleton of the body forms a vertebral pillar, which lies closer to the rear surface of the body. The upper end of the spine is the bone base of the neck and serves as a skull support. The skeleton of the body includes ribs, which, connecting the back with the spine and the precast in front of the chest bone, form the chest - the bone base of the chest. With the skeleton of the body stand in close connection the initial parts of the limbs:

shoulder belt at the upper limbs and is associated with chest;

pelvic belt - at the bottom, which is associated with the lower end of the spine.

Spine

The spine consists of vertebrae, differing among themselves in various areas of the spine. The spine is divided into five parts:

) cervical, consisting of seven vertebrae,

) chest - from twelve vertebrae,

) Lumbar - five vertebrae,

) sacrilant - five vertebrae

) Copter - four or five vertebrae.

The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine - True vertebrae (connected between him with the help of ligaments). The rest of the vertebrae included in the last two departments of the spine are false vertebrae, since they, dragging together and significantly changing their shape, form two separate bones - the crushes and the tailbone.

Each true vertebra has a ring shape, the front of which is thickened in the form of a short column and is called the body of the vertebra, and the rear - more subtle - forms a mug of the vertebra. The arrangement along with the body surrounds the vertebral hole. The body of the vertebrae, overlapping each other, form a pillar that supports the torso along with the head. From the arms of the vertebra, several processes depart, of which one serve to attach muscles, while others - to connect vertebrae between them. In the interval between the upper and lower joints, on each side of the arrangement, it is moving along a transverse process, facing its top of the sideways. From the middle of the back circle, the arms of the vertebra performs the forset of an unpacking sprinkle process.

The body of the cervical vertebrae is the smallest in its size, and the lumbar vertebrae has the largest. SсTI-sized cervical vertebrae processes are short and split at their ends. In the direction of the book, the length of them increases. The dwelling vertebra has the longest spousine process from all cervical vertebra; A faint process of this vertebra is not cleaved and strongly issued back (in the form of a back at the bottom of the neck on the border with the torso, especially when flexing).

The sausage processes of breast vertebrae are long and strongly tilted by the book, as a result of which they run on each other. Ostial reproduction of lumbar vertebrae are highly flattened from the sides and are directed directly back.

Of all the vertebrae in their form, they differ significantly from other two top cervical vertebra. The first cervical vertebra (Atlant) supporting the skull is deprived of the body and consists of only two arcs - the front and rear, between which the sides are the side masses. Atlanta has these articular processes. They are replaced by articular surfaces located on the upper and lower side of the side masses. Upper articular surfaces - oval form concave pits connecting with convex sinks of the tight bone.

The lower articular surfaces are articulated with the upper articular surfaces of the 2nd cerulic vertebra (epistroinet), has a thick tooth-tender process on the top side of its body, which is born on the back of the front arc of the Atlanta.

In the articulation between the Atlanta and the occipital bone, the milestones occur, that is, flexing the head back and forth, as well as tolerance to her side (right and left). The articulation between the Atlanta and the epiprotemus serves to rotate the head around the longitudinal axis, and the head moves near the dental epistrophey process along with the Atlanta like the wheel around the axis.

The lower, the most wide part of the spine forms the crushes, consisting of five, in adults perfectly spilled in one bone, vertebrae. The crushes has the form of a wedge, the wide base of which is addressed to the top and a little forward, and the top is a book. For its base, the crosses are connected to the last lumbar vertebra, and the top is with a smoking. The front surface of the sacrum is strongly concave and participates in the formation of the pelvis wall. It has four pairs of front sacral holes, leading to a sacral channel, constituting the continuation of the spinal canal. The rear surface of the sacrum convex and very uneven; It can be noticed on it the average longitudinal scallop, formed from the drain of the coolest transfers of sacral vertebrae. On both sides of it are four rear sacrats, which are also leading to the sacral canal and communicate with the front sacrum holes. The dust from the sacral holes are the side parts of the sacrum, to which the pelvic bones are taped.

The female crescents are wider, in short and not so bend like a male crescent.

The tailbone, connecting with the top of the sacrum and the emanating spine from below, represents a small bone, consisting of several (four-five) completely underdeveloped vertebrae.

The connection of the vertebrae between him is uniformly throughout the spine. Each vertebra connects with its neighbors by means of joints formed by the articular process. The vertebral bodies are connected with each other with the help of cartilage plates - intervertebral cartilage. The same plates are between the fifth lumbar vertebra and a sacrum, and then between the last and cock. The arms of the vertebrae are connected between themselves with elastic yellow ligaments.

When flexing the spine Kepende, when vertebrates are removed from each other, yellow ligaments are stretched as rubber, but when the thrust stops, the spine is quickly straightened by himself due to the elasticity of yellow ligaments without the cost of muscle strength.

The spine is fastened by a longitudinally walking bundles and represents a strong and elastic pillar that supports the whole severity of the body, heads and upper limbs. In the cervical part, it is quite thin, he gradually thickens down until the sacrum starts, where he quickly begins to narrow and the end of the tailbone comes on. Being laid in the thicker of the rear body of the body, the spine is located closest to the surface of the body with its back side, that is, the line of ostic processes and the rear surface of the sacrum.

The vertex pillar is not direct, it has several defined bends. The bends in the chest and on the sacrum are directed by convexity back, and in the cervical and lumbar parts - ahead. The most expressed lumbar bending, and moreover, most of all women, which is characteristic paul featureThrough which, on a beautifully formed women's torso, the lower back area is usually more deployed than in men.

With an increase in the load (wearing weight), the bends of the spine are enhanced, with a lying position they are flattened. In the old age, the spine loses its beautiful bends due to the decrease in the intervertebral cartilage and the vertebrals themselves; Due to the loss of elasticity, the spine bends the kepeda, forming one big breast bend (senile hump), and the length of the spinal column decreases - a person.

From the mobility of the spine depend on the movement of the body. The spinal column is possible movement in all directions: flexion and extension (forward and backward and backward), slopes to the side (right and left) and twisting around the longitudinal axis. Due to the features of the device, movements between individual vertebrae cannot be extensive. However, thanks large quantity links from which the spine small movements Between the individual vertebrae, summing up, give all the spine quite significant mobility.

Mobility of non-etinakov in various spinal deposits. Flexion and extension is possible in the cervical and lumbar departments. Slopes right and left in particular expressed in lumbar Department. Accordingly, these movements of the spine occur the corresponding gears and the torso above and below the chest. The twist of the spine itself is small and can be produced in the field of lower breast versions, due to which the chest and shoulders are located space with respect to the lower end of the body.

rib cage

Rear is formed by breast vertebrae, from the side of the second pairs of edges, and in front of the unpaired bone - sternum.

The ribs represent the narrow, arcuately curved plates, consisting of their rear, the longest part of the bone, and in the front, shorter, from cartilage. The back end of each edge has a thickening - the head, through which the edge is tested with the bodies of the vertebrae; Behind the head follows the neck of the rib, the lateral end of which is the roar tuberculosis, articulated with a transverse vertebral process. In the back of the ribs bending steeper than in front; Where the edge begins to bend the kleon, is a roughness, called an edge angle.

Ribs are located obliquely, significantly dropping the book with their front ends. The length of the ribs increases, counting from top to bottom to the 7th rib; Starting from the 8th, the ribs reopening up to the 12th rib. Seven upper ribs - True ribs, because They are connected to their cartilages with the sternum, and due to the shortness of the last rib cartilage, starting from the 3rd, approaching the sternum, have an upward direction, and the cartilage from the 5-7rd rib form bends in the form of corners. The rest of the ribs are false, do not reach the sternum, and the cartilages 8, 9 and the 10th edges are attached each to the overlying edge cartilage, the front ends of the 11th and 12th ribs, equipped with small pointed cartilagers, are not connected to anything and free Located in soft parts (the so-called oscillating edges).

Bustle is a slightly curved from top to bottom flat bonelocated in the midline somewhat permanent, the lower end is closer to the kepent than the top. Consists of three parts:

· handles;

· bodies;

· mesia-shaped process.

The handle is the widest part, the top edge of which forms a jugular clipping, which limits the lower edge of the jugular fossa located at the bottom of the neck along the midline. The body, the longest part, the book is somewhat extended. Movie-shaped process is a short part and very volatile in shape. The position of the sword-shaped process of a napkin.

On the sides of the jugular clipping on the handle there are clavical cuts, which serve to articulate with the clavicle. On the side edges of the sternum - cuttings that the cartering of the upper seven ribs are connected, and the cartilage of the 1st edge is attached to the handle below the clavinary clipping, and the cartilage of the 2nd on the site of the combination of the arm arm, the remaining cartilage is connected to the edges of the sternum body. The edges of the lower ribs (rib arcs) are converged to the sternum at an angle, the top of which is a napkin. In women, the breast has a shorter than in men, which depends on the shortening of the body of the sternum, while the handle in both sexes is the same.

The chest has an ovoid shape with a narrow upper end and the bottom wider, and it is somewhat siled from the front back, as a result of which its transverse size is more advanced. In women, the chest is shorter and round, than in men, and at the bottom is more narrowed.

Wide, strong chest is a sign good health; Its circumference, measured at the level of nipples, in healthy, well-folded people should be equal to no less than half of growth. In weakly folded, prone to the car, there is an elongated, narrow chest, in the form of its approaching position when exhaled. In people suffering from the "expansion of the lungs" (emphysema), the chest has an extended form, as if in the condition of inhalation.

shoulder girdle

The shoulder belt on each side consists of two bones: clavicle and blades, the clavicle is connected to the sternum, and a free upper limb is brought to the shovel.

The clavicle represents the 8-shaped curved tubular bone, which is located horizontally under the skin on the border between the neck and breast. Inner, or sternum, the end of the clavicle is somewhat thickened and rests on the surface of the surface in the brace cutting of the sternum, forming a sternum-clavical articulation along with her. The inner end of the clavicle limits sides in the form of a protrusion of a jugular fossa. Outdoor, or acromic, the end is compressed from top to bottom and tested with a acryal blades of the blade. The inner part of the clavicle, the closest to the sternum, has convex a kepenta, and the outdoor stop.

Sleepy people, with underdeveloped muscles, the clavicle is issued more than that in full. A strong, strong curved clavicle is issued more dramatically than thin and weakly curved ( Last form Often meets in women, so they, in connection, with a large number of subcutaneous fat, the contours of the clavicle are smoothed).

The blade, flat triangular bone adjacent to the rear surface of the chest on the space from the second to the seventh edge. It distinguishes three edges:

internal - addressed to the spine,

outer;

All the edges converge with each other under three angles, of which one is sent by the book, and the other two, internal and external, are at the ends of the top edge of the blade. The outer angle is significantly thickened and equipped with a joint cavity, which serves to join with the head of the shoulder bone. From the top edge of the blade, close to the articular depressure, the thick and drowned beak arc. Upon the rear surface of the blade passes the sideways from the inside to the outer outstanding comb - the blade is sustained, which divides the rear surface into two unequal parts of the site: supervoloral and suitable pits that are filled with muscles.

Blank dust, continuing in outdoor side, ends with a acromic process, hanging from behind and on top above the shoulder joint. The blade with muscles, only the remaining and the acromic process lie directly under the skin.

Both bones of the shoulder belt - a clavicle and a blade, taking place, with each other at an angle, on the other side, cover the upper end of the chest and form the basis of the shoulders. Thanks to the presence of the shoulder belt, the upper part of the breast has a wider than the bottom.

The position of the shoulder belt is individually very different and depends on the shape of the chest. With a wide and convex chest, the shoulder belt is high, and with a narrow, on the contrary, it is low, which, in turn, affects the shape and width of the shoulders. Connecting with a clavicle, the blade is not directly connected with the rest of the skeleton of the body.

Seasoned to the chest, the blade under the influence of the muscles can move, moving along with the hand, which does not remain without affecting the model modeling. The movements of the blades take place up and book, back and forth, and finally, the blade can turn around the axis of the axis, and the lower angle is shifted by the dodder, as it happens when rising hands to the head. Simultaneously with the spatula moving and the clavicle; When the blade, and together with it and shoulder, are raised up, the clavicle from the horizontal takes the oblique position due to the rise of its outdoor end.

pelvic girdle

Pelvic girdle It consists of two pelvic, or unnamed, bones, which, connecting with a sacrum and between them, form a bone ring - a pelvis - an employee for connecting the body with lower limbs.

The pelvic bone is formed by the merger of the iliac, closer and sedlicate bones of converging with each other in the field of acetabulous depression, which, placing on the outside of the pelvic bone, is used to articate with the head of the femoral bone.

The iliac bone with its short lower and thick department is merged with a godded depression; The upper extended and more or less thin part of it forms the wing of the iliac bone, slightly concave from the inside. The free upper arcuated edge of the wing is a thickened comb to which wide abdominal muscles are attached. Comb in front and rear ends with protrusions - front and rear iliac oyshes. On the inside of the iliac bone, in its rear part, there is a joint surface for connecting to a sacrum.

Lonatic bone has upper and lower branches located under an acute angle. On the angle addressed to the midline lies the articular surface to connect to the lane of the other side.

The sciatic bone has the upper and lower branches, forming an angle with each other, whose vertex is strongly thickened and represents the so-called satellite borgon (on the seeded bumps it relieves the torso at the seat).

Lonnaya and sedal bones formed by their branches form bone crossbars surrounding the locking hole.

Each of the pelvic bones is connected to the side part of the sacrum with the help of a crusant articulation, representing a semi-propelled joint with a narrow cavity and tightly tightlifts. Ahead in the field of the joint surfaces of the LONA bones, both pelvic bones are connected with each other with a latal battle consisting of cartilage. Important role In the sense of the strengthening of the pelvic bones and the sacrum between soda, the arresting constructions and a cross-ligament are playing between them. Due to its device, connections between bones of the pelvis do not allow notable movementsBut make the pelvis elasticity, very beneficial in the sense of softening of jolts and concussions.

The bone pelvis ring is sharply divided into two departments: the top wider large pelvis and the lower is narrower - small pelvis. Large pelvis is limited from the sides of more or less strongly dispersed wings of the iliac bones, it does not have in the front bone wallsAnd the back is complemented by lumbar vertebrae. The upper border of a small pelvis separating it from large, forms a wide hole called a pelvic inlet.

Male pelvis is higher and narrow, and the female is low, but more and the tank. In plastic terms the greatest value has a big pelvis; Thanks to the bent duck, the wings of the iliac bones, which, located with their ridges on the sides on the lower border of the abdomen, have an impact on the formation of the side circuit of the body in this area. Due to the large fill of the iliac bones in women, the width of the body has more in the level of iliac crests than men. People of the eloquent ridges of iliac bones together with their ending the front essays are more or less abruptly issued through the skin.

The plasticity is also the area of \u200b\u200bthe LONA FIGHTING, where there is a roughening elevation called pubic. With its natural position, the pelvis is strongly inclined by the kepened, so the plane of the pelvic input forms an angle of about 60 ° with a horizontal plane, and the upper edge of the lane fusion lies on the same level with the top of the tailbone. The slope of the pelvis depends on the vertical position of the body in humans, which is also the cause of the bends of the spine, with which the pelvis is in direct communication. In women, the inclination of the pelvis is more than in men, respectively, they also have more lumbar bending. When an inclination of the pelvis, the stomach is extended, and the buttocks are protruding, with a decrease in the same inclination - on the contrary.

Neck is binder link Between the torso and head, has a cylindrical shape. The top border of the neck in the front forms the edge of the lower jaw, and the back is a line, spent on the other side of the occipital buff to the presenter process. The lower boundary is the jugular cutting of the sternum and the upper edges of the collar to the acromic processes of the blades; Rear - a protruding sprinkling process of the 7th cervical vertebrae and a line, conducted between this vertebra and an acromic process on the other side.

The censure of the neck serves the cervical side of the spine, which lies closer to its rear surface.

The neck grows out of the body on a wide base, moving on the sides in the shoulders. From the shape of the shoulders depends on the side circuit of the neck, as well as its length. In turn, the shape of the shoulder is depending on the position of the shoulder belt.

If the shoulder belt is low, then the shoulders are located down, thanks to which the side circuit of the neck, going first vertically from the Ucha Book, is lowered along the oblique gear line along the edge of the trapezoid muscle to the acromic process, where it goes into the convexity of the deltoid muscle. With a high position of the shoulder shoulder belt, there are horizontally; Contour line with its transition from vertical direction Cool, almost at right angles, turns the duct, heading towards the acromial process of the blade. In this case, the neck and shoulders are sharply separated from each other.

At low ending shoulders, the neck becomes longer, and at high, horizontal it is shortened.

The spine neck is divided into two departments: front and rear. In the backyard, muscles lie, representing the upper continuation of the muscles of the back.

The most surface muscle of the neck is the trapezoid muscle, which, covering the neck of the back, wraps on the sides of the sides, also attached to the outer end of the clavicle.

Front of the neck, front of the spine, the thunder of the rear; It concludes in itself, besides the muscles belonging to the neck itself, another number of other organs, of which some have an influence on plastic.

From the muscles of the forelock of the neck, the most superficially lying is the subcutaneous muscle of the neck. It represents a continuation of the skin of the skin (mimic) muscles of the face and goes in the form of a wide, but thin plate from the edge of the lower jaw through the clavicle to the top of the chest, where it is attached to the skin. Since the fibers of both subcutaneous muscles have an oblique direction, then the in the middle of the neck remains the triangular space, where they are missing. Sleepy old people can see the front edges of the subcutaneous muscles in the form of two folds stretching from the chin towards the chest.

Under this muscle is located on both sides of the neck, the most important in plasticity of all cervical muscles is a breast-curable nipple muscle. It begins downstairs two heads:

o. internal round - from the front surface of the handle of the sternum and

o. outdoor shredded - from the bristle adjacent to the sternum.

Between both heads there is a triangular form of the gap, noticeable when cutting the muscle through the skin in the form of a fox. Both heads converge together, and the outdoor fits with its fibers under the inner and then the muscle in the form of an oblong quadrangular heavy tape stretches up and the forset, where it is attached to a flat tendon to a large-appaled process and the occipital bone. With the simultaneous reduction in both breast-key-nipple muscles, the head is inflicted. With one-sided reduction, the head bends downwards towards the cutting muscle and, at the same time, turns into the opposite direction. Breast-key-nipple muscles, due to its thickness and superficial position, even in calm state Nice through the skin on two elevations, which comes from the mastoid processes to the sternum ends of the clavicle. Of the two edges, the muscles are more clearly noticeable; The rear in the upper body of the muscles is not given at all.

Both breast-key-nipple muscles separate the neck into three triangular spaces: the front area of \u200b\u200bthe neck and two side areas.

The front area has a triangle shape, the top of which is drawn down to the chest bone, and the base corresponds to the edge of the lower jaw. In this area there is a small podium bonehaving a shape of a convex side of the horseshoe. Below it is in its middle line of the neck, there is one of the respiratory departments - larynx - which goes further down into the breathing throat. The most plastically important damping cartilage thyroid, consisting of two side plates, which are connected to each other in the midline at an angle. This angle, issuing ahead under the skin of the neck, forms a ledge - Kadyk, or Adamovo apple. At the top edge of the cartilage in the corner area there is a cutting, which is also visible through the skin. In children and women, the plates of the thyroid cartilage converge more rounded.

The top of the respiratory throat below the larynx protrusion covers thyroidwhich is the middle part of your part in front of the throat, and the side shares are adjacent to its side sides and larynx. Podium bone subdivides the front area of \u200b\u200bthe neck into two secondary areas: submandibular and sublard. These areas include muscles attached on the sub-band bone and are located above and below it.

The muscles above the sub-band bone are stretched between it and the lower jaw, forming the submandibular region. Shrinking, they pull up a lift bone together with the ladder suspended to the axis, and when the sub-band bone is strengthened, they omit down the lower jaw, opening the mouth (chewing muscle antagonists). It:

o. muscle bubbly, consisting of two babes connected by intermediate tendon. The back of the abdomen originates on the inside of the mastoid proof, and the front is attached on the inner surface of the lower jaw at the chin. Intermediate tendon is attracted to the sub-band bone by means of fascia;

o. the maxillary muscle lies above the front abdomen of the two-dimensional muscle and represents the flat muscle, which begins at the top of the inner surface of the lower jaw and is attached to the sub-band bone, fightering with its pair over the midline. Front abdomen of the bubbling muscle, as well as the maxillary-speaking muscle when the head is thrown back, form a roller in the midline between the lower jaw and the sub-speaking bone.

In the triangular space between the lower jaw and both abdomen of the two-dimensional muscle, the submandibular salivary gland, which can give an easy protrusion in the side part of the submandibular area.

o. Shieldy-speaking and chorely, the lifting muscles do not have a plastic value.

Below the sub-band bone are:

o. muscle's shoulder shoulder - one side is narrow and long goes From the upper edge of the blade indirectly through the neck to the lower edge of the sub-speaking bone. Lifting up, intersects with a sternum-clarity-nipple lying over it.

o. the sternum-ply - is closer to the midline on the other side, it is attached at the top to the sub-band bone.

o. the sternum-thyroid muscle is under the previous one and attached to the side surface of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx.

All these muscles pull down the attachment of the book and do not have a plastic value.

Since these muscles begin at the bottom of the back side of the arms of the sternum, the recess is formed above the jugular clipping - a jugular fossa, bounded from the sides of the inner heads of the breast-curable-nipples and the sneakers of both clavits.

The side area of \u200b\u200bthe neck on each side is limited to the rear edge of the breast-curable-nose and the front edge of the trapezoid muscles converging at the top with each other. The lower boundary of the region is the clavicle. The bottom of this space is formed by deep cervical muscles: Patch muscle, racming, and three staircase muscles. These muscles have a secondary plastic value. They lie deeper than the outskirts of the region, and as a result, an inspection pocket is formed. With deep inhalation, the per capita fossa becomes deeper and the blatant-lift muscle performs sharp. The per capita jam is also deepened while stretching the hand of the Kepened, since the clavicle moves away from the chest; On the contrary, when the hand is administered, the vestment is flared. When lowered, low-lowered shoulders, the fossa is smaller than at high. A subcutaneous vein is visible through the skin in the side area of \u200b\u200bthe neck, called the outer jugular, which descends from the angle of the lower jaw through the breast-clarity-nipple muscle towards the clavicle. It is filled with blood and becomes especially noticeable when screaming, singing.

In women and children, thanks to the weaker development of deep-haul parts and greater fat deposition in the subcutaneous layer, the neck configuration is of greater uniformity than in men who are angular. Women's neck Front is slightly rounded, and the ledge of the larynx (Kadyk) is not issued. The neck in women looks slim due to their subtlety and somewhat lower standing shoulders. Some women on the front surface of the neck are visible one or two shallow transverse grooves, the so-called Venus Necklace.

The rear section of the neck is convex in transverse and concave in longitudinal directions. In the midline of the region, a longitudinal hopping stretches, which at the top under the occipital hill is deepened, forming a depression (occipital fossa). On the sides, it is limited to two longitudinal protrusions formed by deep muscles lying under the trapezoid muscle.

Shapes of the neck change when driving, which it makes together with the head - flexion and extension of the head, slopes on the parties and rotation to the right or left.

When extending or throwing back the head back, the back of the neck is approaching the seventh cervical vertebra area, and the rear section of the neck is shortened and several transverse skin folds are formed. The front department, on the contrary, is strongly stretched, the angle between the submandibular and subwage regions, due to the disintegration of the lower jaw, expands, so that with strong degrees of extension both areas become almost at the same level, separated by flat interception at the site of the sub-band bone. The neck is expanding due to the displacement on the side of the breast-clarity-nipple muscles, the inner edges of which are clearly noticed through the skin.

When flexing the chin approaches the chest; on the front side of the neck appear transverse skin folds. The breast-key-nipple muscles, squeezed by the corners of the lower jaw form the protrusions in this place, below, especially with strong bending, they are not visible.

The rear section of the neck during bending is extended and spinning; The seventh cervical vertebra performs sharply than the ongoing books of the upper chest vertebrae from it.

In the side slope of the head on the side of the inclination, skin folds are formed, whereas on opposite side Soft fabrics stretch. When the head rotates, then on the side of the opposite, where the head turns, the sternum-clarity-nipple muscle is reduced, which, instead of oblique, receives almost a direct direction, and its front edge protrudes sharply through the skin.

When rotating the head, the larynx remains in its place, not shifting to the side, while the sub-bandy bone, together with the submandibular region, follows the head.

chest

The chest stretches from the front from the collar to the edges of the lower edges. The shape of the chest depends on the shape of the chest and the position of the shoulder belt. Muscles breasts of two types:

1.the own muscles of the chest - fill the gaps between the ribs - intercostal muscles. They are divided into outdoor and internal and cause their breathing motion of the chest:

o. outdoor intercostal muscles raise the ribs, causing an expansion of the chest cavity during inhalation;

o. internal intercostal muscles omit ribs, facilitating exhalation.

Start on the surface of the chest, attached on the shoulder belt and the upper limb. Have the largest plastic value. In accordance with them, breasts are divided into the front and two lateral areas corresponding to the same sides of the chest.

In the front area on the sides of the midline a large breast muscle. It begins on the inner half of the clavicle (crooking part), from the front surface of the sternum and the cartilage of the upper six ribs (sterno-ribbed part) and a weaker beam from the front wall of the vagina's direct abdominal muscle (abdominal part). Muscle fibers go from all points first in the outdoor side, where they converge and crossed out between them, and then short tendons are attached to the crest of a large tubercle of the shoulder bone. With its reduction, leads a hand to the body and turns it inside. With the exception of the tendon covered with the deltoid muscle, the big breast muscle lies directly under the skin, forming a flat elevation of a quadrangular shape with a riser hand.

Between the elevations of both breast muscles in the middle line of the chest from the jugular clipping, the longitudinal luggage passes, at the bottom of which lies the middle part of the sternum, covered here only with the skin; At the bottom of the hollow deeper. The inner edge is big breastpus convex and addressed to the sternum, limiting the longitudinal lodgment; The upper edge corresponds to the clavicle, the exterior adjacent to the edge of the deltoid muscle, separating from it by the groove, which expands at the top under the clavicle, causing the appearance of a subclavian fossa. The lower edge of the big breast muscle, convex a book in the inner part, is bent in the outer part, where it forms the front wall of the submerged piercely. When the hand allotted, the big breast muscle has a triangular shape, since the upper and the outer edges are then on the same line.

In men on the skin elevation of a large breast muscle, closer to its lower edge on the other side, the nipple is placed, the position of which approximately corresponds to the 4th intercostal gap. Nipple is a rugous ledge, surrounded by dark red by the eye of the circle. A sharp feature in the outside outline represents the anterior thoracic region of a woman, thanks to the chest glands (breasts) placed here. They are located on the surface of large breast muscles. Well-formed elastic breast glands extend from the 3rd to the 6th rib, reaching Knuts to the edge of the sternum. The shape of the glands is a half-one, the height of which is about a third of the diameter of its base. Chest glands Located several permanent nipples with divergent. On plastic female breasts The nipples and the near-block circle are also influenced. Blondes of ON. pink colour, Brunettes are brown. Width near-block circle Also diverse.

Due to the compound chest iron With a big breast muscle, they are mixed with the movements of the hands. When picked up hands, the chest climbs up, and the folds are under them, if the chest were disgasic, smoothed. When lowering hands, the opposite phenomenon occurs.

In the lateral area of \u200b\u200bthe chest on the surface of the chest, the front gear muscle is locked. This muscle begins nine teeth from eight or nine upper ribs and, heading the post, attached to the inside edge of the blade. The initial teeth of the muscles are located on the arcuate line, the 1st proven is the turning out of the turnond, while the two recent teeth lie behind him more than the hide.

Three lower teeth (7, 8 and 9th) have an upward direction to the place of their attachment at the corner of the blade. The front gear muscle is more covered in front of a large thoracic muscle, and behind a shovel and a wide spine, so only three and a half of the lower teeth (9, 8, 7th and half of the 6th) are visible with a risen hand. When the hand is lifted, then, thanks to the movement upstairs, the five lower teeth are visible.

The front gear muscle can decline entirely or individual parts. With the reduction of entirely simultaneously with the spine muscles (diamond and trapezoidal), it establishes a motionless blade by creating a support of the upper limb. The bottom muscle department turns the lower angle of the blade of the Kepened and the dust. The upper teeth move the shovel together with the collar of the kobyand. The lower gears of the anterior toothed muscle alternate with the initial teeth of the outer oblique muscle of the abdomen, lying on the side surface of the chest.

The side area of \u200b\u200bthe chest at the top continues to the cercelny hole, which is between the base of the upper limb and the chest. When the hand is allotted, it appears in the form of a depression, limited from the bottom of the lower edge of the big breast muscle, and behind a wide back and a large round muscle. A fossa is open a book and a few kpeed; Behind, even with the allotted hand, it is not visible, as the blade lights up it.

stomach

The abdominal muscles occupy the gap between the lower circumference of the chest and the top edge of the pelvis. They surround their abdominal cavity, forming the wall with her cover. Since the bottom edge of the chest front is standing higher than from the sides and behind, and the pelvis is tilted by the kepened and the book, then the abdominal wall is much longer than from the sides. Due to the shortness of the female chest and a large caclusion of the pelvis at a relatively small height of his stomach in women looks longer than in men.

The abdominal wall in its side parts consists of three broad muscular layers lying on each other - the outer oblique and the inner oblique transverse muscles of the abdomen. In front of the composition abdominal wall Two straight muscles of the abdomen are consistently walking on the sides of the middle line. Plastic value have only external oblique and straight muscles.

The outer oblique muscle, the highest of all three wide abdominal muscles, begins on the side surface of the chest from the seven lower edges of the seven teeth, of which the four tops come between the penette the front gear muscle, and the lower three are between the teeth of the wide muscles of the back. The rear (lower) bundles are sent steeply down and attached to the ridge of the iliac bone. In men, this muscle, attaching to the iliac row, hangs below it, forming a convex fold of the fold. The remaining muscular bundles beginning with the above and the koons are descending indirectly from top to bottom and near the side edge of the direct muscle pass into a wide tendon stretching, which passes ahead of the straight muscle of the abdomen, entering the front wall of its vagina. The lower free edge of the stretching is thrown between the anterior iliac rope and the LONA bone forming a inguinal ligament.

Between the inner edge of the meaty part of the outer oblique muscle and the outer edge of the right muscle, a narrow vertical hollow is formed, which is lower in the triangular field, limited to the bottom of the groove bundle. The straight muscles of the abdomen are laid in the front of the abdominal wall on the sides of the middle line and consist of parallel bunches of fibers located in the board on the board. Each of the straight muscles begins in the form of a wide and flat muscular body from the front surface 5, 6 and the 7th rib cartilage and gradually narrowing and thickening, headed by the book and short tendon attaches to lobo Dice On the side of the Lona Fight. Throughout the straight muscle several times interrupted by moving transversely tendon jumpers. Such tendon jumpers happens three:

ü the upper is located along the edge of the chest,

ü lower - at the navel level,

ü the average is in the middle between them.

By forming a vagina, tendon stretching of the other side converge together and connect between them, as a result of which the middle line of the abdomen, between both straight muscles, it turns out a longitudinal tendon strip, coming from the sword-shaped grudge back to the lane fusion and called white line.

Abdominal muscles, with their reduction, narrow the abdominal cavity and put pressure on the included in it. internal organs, forming him abdominal Presswhose action is manifested at various sidewalks. With such a reduction in the muscles, the abdominal wall is compacted. Abdominal muscles Fiberate the torso Kepened is straight muscles. With one-sided reduction of wide muscles, the body is rotated.

The shape of the abdomen depends on age, gender, condition and position of the body. Beautiful form The abdomen meets at a young age, when the elasticity of the skin and the abdominal muscles is still preserved, and at the same time there is no abundant fat deposition. In a young, well-folded man, an abdominal wall with moderate tension does not protrude on the level of rib arcs, outlining the upper border of the belly. The area corresponding to direct muscles is somewhat performing, and tendon jumpers are designated at it with severe muscles. Outside it is separated from the side parts of the belly with a shallow side groove, passing between the edge of the straight muscle and the meaty part of the outer oblique. In the midline, at the top at the site of the sword-shaped process, a triangular shape is noticeable, a fed hole from which is down to the navel or below, the middle groove corresponding to the white line passes.

The navel is in the middle of the distance between the Meso-shaped process and the pubic. A well-formed navel is always drawn, having a look of a small funk-shaped hole. The lower part of the abdomen somewhat convex the Kepenta and the young lack of label people separately separated from the pubis.

Lobok presents his elevation formed by the accumulation of adipose tissue ahead of the Lona Self. Below the pubic begins the field of genital organs. On both sides of the pubis, the lower border of the belly form inguinal folds separating the abdominal wall from the front surface of the thighs. Each of these folds is in the form of a light arc to anterior iliac akstow, respectively, the direction of the groove bundle. The depth of the fold increases with the slope of the flue torso. From the inside to pahova fold Adhes the femoral fold, enveling the thigh from the inside and ending on its front surface. Above the pubic is stretched in the form of an arcuate, concave the lower abdominal line up the line, noticeable in full of people, especially in women. The side parts of the abdomen, limited in front of the side groove, behind, at the bottom end of the chest, form a lightweight, called the waist.

From this place the side of the side contour of the belly descends indirectly to the ridge of the iliac bone, ending slightly below the protrusion of the hanging folds of the outer oblique muscle. There are no women's folds, there is a grease cluster, smoothing the transition of the side areas of the abdomen in the hips.

The female belly is characterized by a greater length and width, and the navel is located above. Due to the greater development of subcutaneous adipose tissue, the female belly has a softer modeling - the straight muscles of the abdomen do not form a noticeable speaker, the side and median groove is weakly expressed. Due to the accumulation of fat in the circumference of the stomach navel is more. Lobok in women is wider and convex. Having a triangle shape with a vertex turning down to the gap between the hips, it is limited to the sides, femured folds, and from above - the bottom abdominal groove.

The abdominal shape affects the position of the body depending on the movement of those in abdominal cavity Interns. With a vertical position, due to the severity of the insides, pressing the lower part of the front abdominal wall, causing it to protrude. With lying on the back, the stomach becomes blurted in front and expands in its side parts, where the insides are wade. In the lying position, one half of the abdomen, lying lower, is protruding, and the opposite is complied with it.

The form of the abdomen also changes depending on the body movements. With a strong spine extension, when the chest is pronounced, and the pelvic ignition increases, the stomach is extended and is compact, but at the same time becomes wider. Due to the sealing of the abdomen on the upper border, rib arcs are designated. The strength of the abdominal wall, especially in the upper part, under the ribs, it turns out when the chest is lifted due to the delay of the hands up (crucifix). When flexing the torso, the stomach turning is shortened due to the approach of the chest to the navel, over which the transverse fold appears, below which the stomach is somewhat emphasized. A similar fold or inflection also occurs when the seats with a bent flue to the torso. When lining the body's body, when the shoulder approaches the pelvis, the side area of \u200b\u200bthe belly on the side of the tilt is shortened, and there are two thick folds that go intoversely. The upper one is lying at the lower end of the chest, and the lower fastened over the ridge of the iliac bone.

back

The skeleton of the back in the midline is the rear surface of the spine, ranging from the first breast vertebra and ending with a sacrum, then into the skeleton in the upper largest spin department, the rear surface of the chest is part of the skeleton in the upper largest spin. This department is expanding due to the finding of the blades that are adjacent to the back side of the edges from the 2nd to the 7th. In the lower back of the back or in the area of \u200b\u200bthe belt, the skeleton also make up the rear ends of the ileum pelvis. On this bone base, there is a spinal muscles, smoothing all the bone relief protrusions and forming a more or less smooth surface, which somewhat convex the post in the chest back region, while the lower back is concave from top to bottom.

In severely stupid people with poorly developed muscles, the median spinal groove disappears, and instead of it are the cooler vertebrae processes in the form of a longitudinal crest. Eashadowed people also have an accelers of the blades lying directly under the skin, and the muscular people in their place are noticed by grooves formed due to the protrusion of neighboring muscles attached on the blades. "" Indispensable condition The beauty of the back is a dense fit of the blade to the chest; Looming from the last way, the wing of the blade produces an ugly impression "."

The back muscles are located in several layers. The most surface layer consists of two wide paired muscles, which occupy the whole back: a trapezoidal and broad dorsal.

The trapezoid muscle occupies the top of the back to the nape and has a triangular shape. The muscle begins from the occipital bone and from the acute processes of all breast vertebrae. The upper fibers of the muscles envelop the neck on the side and are attached to the outer end of the clavicle and the acromic process, the average and the bottom to the bladder is the utensil. At the points of their attachments, the trapezoid muscle has tendon stretching:

Ø a wide stretching is at the level of the shoulders and forms on both trapezoid muscles, taken together, figure stretched along rhombus, in the middle of which there is a protruding sprinkling process of the 7th cervical vertebra.

Ø tendon stretching smallerhaving a triangular shape is located at the lower end of the muscle at the level of the 11th or 12th breast vertebrae.

Ø the third tendral stretching of the triangular shape is placed there, where the bottom fibers of the muscles are suitable by the end of the bladder asset. It is noticeable through the skin in the form of a small hole in the inner edge of the blade.

The upper fibers of the trapezoidal muscle at its reduction lift the clavicle and the blade will rise upwards, and the blade turns out to the bottom angle (when picked up the arms upwards, above horizontal line). Bottom fibers lower the shovel of the book. With the reduction of all the muscle fibers pulls the shoulders of the stop and inside, both of the blades come closer between them if this action occurs on both sides. With a strengthened shovel, the trapezoidal muscle can turn the head, and when two-sided cuts, throw the head back.

Another surface muscle is a wide back muscle - ranks lower back. His top Suitable for the bottom end of the trapezoid muscle. It begins on the sausage processes of the last four (and sometimes five and six) of the thoracic, all lumbar and sacral vertebrae, as well as from the back of the ridge of the ileal bone and four teeth of the four lower edges of the wilts from their corners. These teeth alternate with the rear teeth of the outer oblique muscle. From the places of its beginning the fiber, the wide muscles of the back go up and sideways, cover the lower corner of the blade with their top edge, and, applying to the shoulder bone, attach to the crest of a small border short tendon along with a large round muscle. In the initial part, in the lumbar region, the wide muscles of both sides form an extensive tendon stretching of a rhombic form, extending in the midline from the 12th breast vertebra to a sacrum.

Muscle action consists in pulling the hands of the Zada \u200b\u200band the book with the turn of her Knutka (when removing the header from back pocket trousers). Outside at the bottom of its part over iliac bone The wide back muscle borders with the rear edge of the outer oblique muscle, separating from it with a small triangular interval filled with fat. Approaching the shoulder bone, along the side edge of the blades, a wide muscle along with a large round muscle participates in the formation of the rear edge of the cercels. The top edge of the muscle covering the lower corner of the blade, due to its thickness can be visible from very muscular people through the skin.

Between the upper edge of the wide muscles of the back and the edges of the muscles underlying the muscles - a trapezoidal inside and deltoid outside - a triangular space is formed, within which the suitable muscle is visible, which occupies the blades of the blades, and the part is small and large round muscles. With his hand raised, these muscles become noticeable at a greater distance, thanks to the back of the rear edge of the deltoid muscle. The relief, formed by the suitable muscle, along with a small round, is upwards and knutrice from a large round muscle covered from below the edge of a wide spine muscle.

In inner corner The triangular spaces and with the allotted hand are visible at the lowest distance of the bottom of the diamond muscle belonging to the deep layer of muscles of the back. This muscle has a form of a rhombic plate, which begins on the coarse processes of the two lower cervical and four-top breast vertebrae, and is attached to the inner edge of the blade. With its reduction, the muscle attracts the blade to the spine and up. The rest of the muscle is covered with a trapezoid muscle, lifting it to the flat elevation between the spine and the blade. With a reduction in the diamond muscle together with the trapezoidal and front gear, when the blade is fixed in its place, the lower edge of the muscle can be detected.

Of the other deep muscles, the influence on the back of the back has a common spinner of the back, which stretches on the sides of the middle line from the sacrum to the nape. This muscle begins on the rear surface of the sacrum, the spiny transfers of lumbar vertebrae and the scallop of the iliac bone in its rear section. In the lower part of the area of \u200b\u200bthe muscle's belt from the surface of the tendon, the above is completely the flesh, and when switching to the chest back, where it starts to be separated into three parts, which go further up, lying in the grooves between the oestous processes and corners of the ribs.

In the lumbar region, the initial departments of both spin extensors covered with a tendral stretching of a wide spine muscle and skin, form two longitudinal protrusions on the sides of the middle groove. The fleshy part of each muscle with a reduction forms convexity on the surface of the body, limited inside indirectly by a groove, corresponding to the place of transition and a tendon part of the muscle. At the site of attaching the tendon of the overall extensor to the iliac bone on both sides, they can be visible on the skin, and moreover, only in men, on a small hole (top lumbly yam). In the thoracic region of the back, the overall extensor does not stand out clearly due to the total mass of the muscles covering its muscles, and on the back of the neck they are formed on the sides of the median hopping protrusions, which include the so-called patcher muscle on the other side.

With its reduction, the total spinner of the back will exist the spine and the torso, with one-sided reduction, it bends the torso in the side (right and left). The lower ends of both common spin extensors, attached on the sacrum, gradually thinning down the book, so the rear surface of this bone, almost completely devoid of muscles, is located directly under the skin, forming the so-called sacral triangle, limited from sides upper edges Buttocks.

The skin of the back is thicker than the skin of the front of the body, however, through it, with the moderate development of the subcutaneous fat layer, the lively game of the spine muscles is easily noticeable during various movements, both the body itself and the upper limbs.

When flexing the spine Kepent, the median spinal groove is complied, the spinner proceeds discard the ferozen bottom and form scallops, more noticeable in thin. With so sluggish landing, when the back is slightly bent, and the head is somewhat lowered, the blades are shifted with the hands, as a result of which the back becomes wider (the chest is already being done). During the extension of the spine, due to the increase in the lumbar bend of the spinal column, the form of the lower back varies correspondingly, and here, with more high degrees Extension, transverse skin folds appear. The straightening of the spine is commonly accompanied by the stopping of the shoulders and together with them the blades, which, moving towards the spine, come closer between them. With strong degrees of this rapprochement between the vanes along the midline of the back, a deep longitudinal gap is obtained, limited from the sides of the protrusions of abbreviated trapezoid muscles. With the inclination of the Block's body (right and left) on the side of the inclination, there is a shortening of the chest with the formation of the transverse folds of the skin between her and the pelvis, while the opposite side is stretched and becomes, due to the discrepancy of the ribs, convex, and the skeletal forms are designated. When rotating the spine when the shoulders and the chest become space in relation to the pelvis, on the side of the rotation of the blade slightly lowered down the book with the protrusion of its lower angle, on the opposite side of the blade shifted upwards.

Spatial relationships of structures in certain areas of the body; . plastic that explains external forms and proportions of body

The emergence and development of sculpture, acquaintance with its main species

The word "anatomy" of Greek origin. It comes from the word "Anatemno", which means "cutting".
The perfection of the plastic beauty of the human body was the focus of artists of all time; Hence countless studies ...

Plastic anatomy It studies the structure and location of the organs that determine the external forms of the human body: the skeleton, muscles, joints, the details of the face, studies the movement and proportions, as well as the human image methodology on the anatomical bases, that is, building a figure based on a skeleton and generalized muscle arrays and part-based parts Based on individual anatomical formations. Without knowledge plastic Anatomy You can not correctly depict a person from nature, nor, in particular, from myself, on the presentation.

The human body consists of a torso, neck, heads, upper and lower extremities. The upper and lower part of the body - the chest and the pelvis - have firmly founded. Between them there are soft tissues of the abdomen region, the shape of which varies depending on the movement of the chest or pelvis (for example, when tilting the body forward, lobby, etc.). The chest areas and the pelvis are connected using a spinal column passing through the midline. The boundaries of the bone base of the upper part of the body, called the chest, are described and acting when inhaling. The bone base of the bottom of the body serve the pelvic bones; The upper borders can easily be forgiven, if, speaking by everyday language, "to uphold". The bone base of the head is a skull - more of its part it is clearly described under the skin. The bone base of the limbs places performs, the places are lost under soft fabrics Body, but still the location of these bones under the muscles can be traced.

When driving, especially if the model is leaning, it can be noted that the body shape changes dramatically: convexity and depressions are formed, clearly distinguishes the shape and direction of the muscles - that soft, but the powerful apparatus that connects separate sections of the skeleton and moves into motion as a torso and limbs. It is clear that the outer forms of the body are due to the skeleton and muscles together with the resulting support and motor vehicle Body hidden by skin cover. At the same time, this apparatus is a capacity of such vital organs of the human body, as organs of digestion, blood circulation, nervous system, respiration, which do not have the external form of direct communication, why they are not included in the rate of plastic anatomy.

Study theoretical foundations plastic Anatomy and anatomical tables illustrating anatomical material must be carried out together, in parallel. By theoretical material You will get acquainted with individual bones and muscles, and in the anatomical tables you will see how these bones and muscles, connecting, form plastic shape separate parts Bodies and how these individual plastic forms together form an integer - figure.

In the works of art included in the anatomical tables, the figure of a person is depicted in various poses, and it makes it possible to show muscles and bones with of different side and in the angles, creating an idea of \u200b\u200bthe spatial position and connections of anatomical formations. Theoretical study plastic Anatomyand the anatomical tables are advisable to accompany practical activities With the indispensable participation of a live model and skeleton. The model must be selected thin with relief muscles. After examining the bone studied from all sides, it is necessary to verify it with the anatomical tables, to apply to the appropriate place on the body of the model and to try (on the model or on yourself), as this bone lies among the muscles. Only after a series of such exercises will begin to make a surround view of the skeleton and muscles, its surrounding. Such work with the anatomical tables, the skeleton and the model will give a complete volumetric idea of anatomical structurewill teach the understanding already looking at the living model, like bones and muscles together form a "private form", as from "private forms" is formed "a large form" and how large formsSkeleton-related, form a figure. These exercises will be taught by drawing a living body, understand and feel the structure of the figure, that is, what is shown in the anatomical tables. During this practical work Sources.

Studying the skeleton, it is necessary to draw the bones with the part of the body in which they run. For this, the living model and the skeleton are set near in the same position. Moreover, it is impossible to draw a schematic contour, and to deal with the bone - it will not give the surround representation of the part of the body. On the contrary, it is necessary in the volumetric black and white image of any detail of a live model to paint the bone. To do this, you should try the bone from a positive person, ask him to move, strain the muscles. These skeleton learning exercises end volumetric pattern Figures with a bulk drawing of the entire skeleton, which is raised next to the model depicted in the same position. The drawing should be built on the base of the skeleton (it should be placed inside the figure) and generalized muscle arrays. In the anatomical tables, the skeleton is depicted inside the contour pattern, and not volumetric, because it is necessary to show a skeleton, no veiled, so that the bone shape is completely visible, but there are two surround images nearby.

Plastic anatomy Artistic or embossed is a discipline that studies the features of all external forms of the human body, in dynamics and statics, as well as in interaction with the inner and external environment.

Plastic anatomy is engaged in studying the structure of organs that form external forms of the body - skeleton, the anatomy of joints, leather, part of the person. Learning the movement center of gravity and balance, image of the figure.

The use of anatomical knowledge in the creative figure is possible only when learning knowledge about the structure of the human body. In addition, in plastic anatomy, the link is studied on the arrangement of muscle arrays. All this makes it possible to correctly depict the figure, whether it is alone or in motion, regardless, it is drawn from nature or on imagination.

Artistically portray a person during the fulfillment of a wide variety of movements is quite difficult, because the form is continuously changing. Therefore, the study is needed not only visually or outside, but also from the inside. Examine the structure, skeleton, and bone relationship, and this is to know the plastic anatomy and all its main features.

The learned will give knowledge about what and how to portray. And the artist will not automatically copy the drawing, and the model will use the model, freely and creatively create an image.

The concept of plastic anatomy is often comparable to the concept of a figure of a person's figures and often in artistic educational institutions Anatomical information can be taught during the drawing process.

The most significant objects of studying this discipline are 3 system systems - leather, muscle and skeleton.

The skeleton consists of numerous bones interconnected, the muscles form the basis, help to change the shape of the shape, shrinking and relaxing, the skin covers the body. Studying this helps to create perfect image and drawing.

Plastic anatomy, studying the anatomy of human muscles, uses the following classification:

1. In form.
2. In relation to the joints.
3. By the number of heads.
4. In the direction of fibers.
5. By location.
6. On performed activities.
7. By effect on the joints.

The study of individual muscles is one of the main tasks of plastic anatomy. After all, it is important to understand as individual muscles, coating joints and bones, in a compound with other parts of the body form a single volumes.

It is in the knowledge and binding of all these knowledge among themselves, that is, in the ability to build a figure and consists of the most important purpose of studying this discipline.

The plastic anatomy of a person reveals all the beauty of the body, in all its complexity, in the modification and movement of the forms. She teaches not only mechanically sketching bulges and bumps, but also to depict the form, having solved the content.

This science gives an idea of \u200b\u200bdetermining its external forms.

During the study of plastic anatomy, attention is focused on common features The structure of a person, without putting individual differences in chapter. In the study of the human body, the emphasis is placed on the inner design, in motion and balance, the origin of the forms. Plastic anatomy makes it possible to develop the ability to make sketches and sketches on the representation, without sketting from nature.

The importance of plastic anatomy in the desire modern artists It can be reproduced as accurately and display visible shapes, comply with the size and create a perfect life-like shape. In addition, it fully satisfies the need of the artist in the knowledge of the structure of the human body and its internal mechanisms, which is necessary as a person's appearance image.