Fitness and healthy lifestyle 

Research methods used in hygiene. Sanitary and hygienic research - big medical encyclopedia

SANITARY AND HYGIENE STUDIES- research carried out to study the factors of production and environment and assessing the impact on human health. Based on the analysis of data from S.-g. and. measures are being developed to improve the living conditions, work, everyday life and recreation of people. Under S.-g. and. apply different methods researches: sanitary-descriptive, organoleptic, physical, chemical, physicochemical, radiochemical, microscopic, bacteriological, mycological, helminthological, statistical, biological, physiological, biochemical, pathomorphological, histochemical, etc.

Sanitary-descriptive methods are the simplest, they give general idea about the object under study.

Organoleptic methods - methods of studying environmental objects using the senses (organoleptic). At the same time, one determines appearance, color, smell, taste, consistency of the investigated object.

Physical methods are used to determine temperature, humidity (see), speed of movement and atmospheric pressure air, measuring the levels of ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation (see), ionization of the atmosphere (see Ionization of air), thermal conductivity of fabrics, clothing, building materials, surface illumination (see Lighting), specific gravity liquids and solid media, caloric content of food (see. Calorimetry), etc. To determine the content of metals in environmental objects and biol. materials use emission spectral analysis (see). The study of air dustiness, identification of compounds, which include metals, are performed using phase X-ray analysis (see X-ray structural analysis). The method of labeled atoms (see Labeled compounds) is characterized by sufficient sensitivity and specificity and allows one to obtain a large amount of information with relatively easy research. For the study of metabolic processes in situ without violating the integrity of cells, autoradiography is convenient (see). The degree of intensity of biochem. processes in cells and their ultrastructure are assessed visually in this case. When studying objects using neutron activation analysis (see Activation analysis), up to 4200 samples per day can be analyzed with the determination of various ingredients in water, air, soil, food, as well as in human hair and blood serum, etc. the applied method of analysis is mass spectrometry (see. Mass spectrometry). Due to the separation of analytes in an electric and magnetic field, it becomes possible to identify them by molecular weight. When monitoring the content of toxic substances in water and air, chromatographic-mass-spectrometric analysis of complex mixtures of substances, carried out using the "Chromass" device (a combination of a chromatographic column with a mass spectrometer), is effective.

Chemical methods are used to determine the qualitative and quantitative composition of the investigated substances, with S.-g. and. air, water, soil, food, as well as materials used in construction, Food Industry, production of children's toys, etc. The levels of contamination of the objects of investigation with the required substances are compared with the corresponding hygienic standards (see. Hygienic standards).

Physicochemical methods are used to identify such indicators of a test object as viscosity, surface tension, electrical conductivity, melting points, boiling points, and solidification points. These include colorimetric, spectrometric, spectrophotometric, nephelometric and polarimetric methods for studying solutions (see Colorimetry, Nephelometry, Polarimetry, Spectrophotometry), atomic absorption spectral analysis, luminescence, chromatographic, polarographic methods (see Luminescence, Polarography) also analysis using electrolysis (see) and potentiometric determination of the pH of solutions (see Potentiometric titration).

Luminescent analysis is one of the most sensitive methods of physical and chemical. research. With its help, it is possible to establish the content of a substance in a test sample at a concentration of up to 0.01 ng / g (10 -11 g / g).

Gas chromatographic analysis offers great opportunities for the separation of multicomponent mixtures of substances contained in environmental objects, allowing for the identification of substances and quantitative determination.

Polarographic analysis is used to determine the microconcentrations of harmful substances in the air of working premises, the atmosphere of populated areas, water, soil, food products.

Radiochemical methods at S.-G. and. used to determine the quantitative composition of radioactive substances in the environment.

Microscopic methods are used in the study of aerosols, hydroplankton, food products for the presence of impurities, clothing fabrics, etc. A microscope is used as the main device (see), and in individual cases to detect dust particles of ultramicroscopic sizes - an electron microscope (see. Electron microscopy). Auxiliary devices are counting chambers, eyepiece mesh micrometers, eyepiece and objective micrometers (see Medical morphometry). For sketching microscopic objects, special devices, microphotography (see) can be used.

Microbiological methods are of paramount importance in S.-g. and. drinking water and food. They are also used in the study of air, soil, water of reservoirs, household items, clothing and equipment at food industry enterprises. Special attention are used for sanitary indicative microorganisms.

Mycological methods in S.-G. and. are used to detect molds in certain food products (bread, meat products), house mushrooms in the wooden parts of the building. Molds are determined microscopically, house fungi - macro- and microscopically, as well as (if necessary) by breeding pure cultures (see Mycology).

Helminthological methods are used with S.-g. and. meat, vegetables, water, soil, etc. Special meaning they have at the control of meat for trichinosis and finnosis (see. Helminthological research methods).

Statistical methods are widely used in S.-G. and. when assessing the impact of industrial and environmental factors on public health, data analysis experimental research(see Sanitary statistics).

Biological methods make it possible to establish how certain environmental factors affect the human and animal organism. In S.-G. and. the bioassay method is widely used.

Physiological methods. These methods are used to study the effect of various factors environment on fiziol. reactions of the human body and experimental animals.

Biochemical methods are successfully used in S.-G. and., especially in practice gigabyte. rationing. These include methods for determining the enzyme spectrum and blood proteins, porphyrin metabolism, immunol. status, some prof. poisons in the secretions of humans and animals, etc. In addition, biochem. methods find application with S.-g. and. biological usefulness of food products, ready-made meals, as well as in the determination of vitamins in them. In the study of certain enzymes in food, you can get additional data on the freshness and good quality of these products. Thus, the determination of milk reductase and catalase is an indicator of its quality.

Pathomorphological methods, including histochemical ones, make it possible to detect the most subtle changes in the structure of organs, tissues and individual cells.

Bibliography: Voronenko V. A. and Novikov Yu. V. Application of gas chromatography in hygienic research, Gig. and dignity., no. 9, p. 81, 1971, bibliogr .; Dmitriev M.T., Ra-styannikov E. G. and VolkovS. A. Control of the composition of water by the system "gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer - computer", Water supply and dignity. technique, no. 4, p. 5, 1981; M and N x AA Methods of hygienic research, M., 1971, bibliogr .; Novikov Yu. V. Application of the method of electronic paramagnetic resonance in hygienic research, Gig. and dignity., no. 8, p. 79, 1973; he, Physical research methods in hygiene, M., 1973, bibliogr .; Novikov Yu. V., Lastochkina KO and Boldina EN Methods for determination of harmful substances in water of reservoirs, M., 1981; P at sh to and N and H. N. Biochemical research methods, M., 1963, bibliogr.

Yu.V. Novikov.

1.2. HYGIENE STUDY METHODS

Hygiene, as a branch of medical knowledge, has its own methodology, which is understood as a set of scientifically grounded methods used to conduct sanitary supervision, develop hygienic regulations, study the state of public health, etc.

There are four main methods in hygiene.

Epidemiological method- a set of methods for studying the health of the population, taking into account environmental factors. This method- one of the leading methods in hygiene.

There are four main ways to implement the epidemiological method for studying the health of the population:

a) with the help of sanitary and statistical materials. According to the official data of medical records, mortality, fertility (data from the registry office), and the incidence of the population for a certain period of time are studied. Materials are analyzed, processed, calculated special indicators fertility, mortality;

b) through a medical examination of certain groups of the population. Specially organized group doctors different profile(therapist, surgeon, pediatrician, obstetrician-gynecologist, etc.) examines and examines a population group that is exposed to a certain factor;

c) medical examination data can be supplemented by in-depth clinical observations, when a group of people exposed to one factor or another (for example, in territories contaminated as a result of the Chernobyl accident) is selected and examined additionally. In-depth clinical instrumental laboratory examination and dynamic medical observation in a hospital setting allow detecting changes in the state of health that cannot be assessed with a single examination on an outpatient basis;

d) a full-scale experiment. A comprehensive study of the health of a group of people exposed to acute or chronic exposure to a certain chemical or physical environmental factor. Complexity lies in the simultaneous use of all the described methods of implementing the epidemiological method.

The method of sanitary description, or sanitary topography. A consistent description of the object. A classic example is the work of F.F. Erisman (description of working conditions at weaving factories). However, even the most thorough description does not provide quantify factor a. Therefore, today hygienists widely use physical, chemical, biological methods, instrumental assessment of this or that phenomenon, computer and geoinformation technologies.

GIS - geographic information systems - are a tool for collecting, systematizing primary information, modeling different situations, spatial analysis of the spread of pollution.

Experimental method. Since the second half of the XIX century. the experimental method has become firmly established in hygiene. There is a natural experiment (Chernobyl, cholera epidemic in Hamburg, etc.). However, in natural conditions, they deal with a complex of factors, which complicates their assessment.

A laboratory experiment makes it possible to simulate the action of individual factors, to clarify the doses (concentrations), the mechanism of action of the factor, and to substantiate a safe level. The experiment is most often performed on laboratory animals and then extrapolated to humans. In some cases - on volunteers, subject to all safety measures established by WHO. The experiment is carried out in special chambers, on stands, etc.

Sanitary examination method, or impact assessment, represents A complex approach to assess the influence of a factor or a group of factors on the state of the environment and public health. When conducting a sanitary examination, all hygiene practices, starting from the sanitary description of the object, quantitative and qualitative characteristics emissions or waste (air, liquid or solid), patterns of their entry into the environment, mechanisms of their distribution in the environment, including the construction of forecast models and assessment of the impact on the health of the population.

V last years appeared new method(or rather, a new direction) in hygiene: risk assessment.

Risk assessment- this is a type of expert work that allows you to determine the number of people who will react negatively to the action of one factor or another.

In medical and environmental studies, risk is assessed as the likelihood of environmental pollution (potential risk), as well as risk as the likelihood of a person's health abnormalities (real risk). Real risk characterizes the damage to public health caused by environmental pollution. Expressed in quantity additional cases diseases, deaths among the population.

Potential risk characterizes the likelihood of an adverse effect for a person under certain conditions. It can be expressed in percentages, shares or cases per 1000, 10,000 people. The risk assessment methodology is used to predict certain situations, the number of additional cases of diseases, deaths, taking into account factors. The damage to public health can be estimated economically. Risk assessment provides an opportunity to make informed management decisions.

Thus, hygiene is an independent medical discipline, moreover, it is the main preventive medical discipline. The hygiene object is healthy person... The subject is the study of the influence of environmental factors, natural and social, on human health. The goal is to eliminate disease by creating favorable environment a habitat.

Basic laws of hygiene The six laws of hygiene on the impact on the environment for memorization can be combined into three “negative”, two “positive” and one “technological”. "Negative" laws:

    The law of the negative impact on the environment of human activities: industrial and household. The lower the scientific and technological progress in the country, the stronger pollution the environment and its impact on the health of people living here. Law negative influence on the environment of natural extreme events - volcanoes, earthquakes, solar flares, etc. The law of the negative impact of environmental pollution on public health: whatever these pollution, they reduce immunity, cause frequent illnesses, accelerate old age and death.
"Positive" laws:
    Law positive influence on the environment of human society - in order to survive, it is forced to adopt laws and measures to limit harmful influence scientific and technological progress per person, reducing the level of pollution. The law of the positive influence of natural factors - sun, air, water and quality food - on human health
"Technological" law:
    Violation of public health (illness, impaired immunity, etc.) is possible in the presence of 3 driving forces: a) a source of harm; b) factors and mechanisms of transmission of these harmful substances; and c) a susceptible organism.
      Hygienic research methods and hygienic regulation
Hygiene, as a science, is inconceivable without laboratory research using chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, and social sciences. These studies are carried out regularly at all levels of government control and are divided into two groups:
      methods by which the state of factors is studied external environment;
P) methods assessing the body's response to exposure harmful factors. To the first group include:
    Method with anitary and hygienic examination- includes a sanitary description of the object of study, from which any hygienic study begins: the sanitary-topographic, sanitary-technical, sanitary-epidemiological state of the research object is characterized, the shortcomings and terms of their possible elimination, the volume and nature of the necessary laboratory tests are described. Laboratory research methods:
A) physical research method - measuring temperature, air velocity, noise, vibration, etc .; B ) sanitary-chemical method - chemical analysis of water, food, etc .; V) microbiological method: direct - bacteriological: determination of the number of microbes and their harmfulness and virological- also with viruses. When it is impossible to identify harmful microorganisms, they are determined indirect method - according to the number of accompanying harmless microorganisms ( colibacillus); G) toxicological (biological) method - on experimental animals (birds, mice, rats), the presence of harmful substance and its effects on health and offspring; D) express method- allows you to quickly determine the presence of a harmful factor, for example, in civil defense - a poisonous substance. Methods second group make up: A) experimental method - to determine the unknown properties of harmful factors; B) method physiological observations- to monitor the health of the living population and compare it with health in another area or at another time; B) method clinical observations- when preventive examinations and dispensary observation make it possible to compare the dynamics of population health in a given locality or group over the years; G ) sociological research and sanitary-statistical methods - mortality, fertility, nuptiality, etc. - make it possible to analyze the ongoing changes in society; D ) questionnaire method - questionnaires with various questions are used, incl. of an intimate nature, which are often answered anonymously; the answers to them play important role in the development of hygiene recommendations. If the methods of the first group are used in practical institutions for everyday research, then the methods of the second group are used in research institutes for scientific justification and scientific and practical conclusions. Hygienic regulation: V modern conditions the problem of preventing the adverse effects of harmful factors on a person comes to the fore, of which chemical attack per person takes leading place... Now a person is faced with more than 650 thousand harmful chemical substances and only 1/5 of them have been studied in detail. Up to 600 new unknowns appear annually chemical compounds... Only about 1000 compounds have been studied. The action of the rest, as a rule, is not known, and studying the action of only one compound requires up to 1 million dollars and a long period (up to 1-3 years). How to protect a person from harmful effects? There are three directions: A - remove harmful factor. It is used in production by replacing technology (for example, direct X-ray examination is replaced by computer-remote). B - reduce action of a harmful factor: 1) reduce the time of work with it (radioactive substances) or 2) reduce the concentration of harmful substances in the working area; when it is impossible, based on modern conditions, to completely stop contact with a harmful factor, then restrictions are introduced - hygienic standards .. B - protect human health: 1) preventive measures - medical examination upon hiring; 2) clinical examination - timely identify the onset of the disease; 3) application protective equipment- respirators, gloves, etc .; 4) compliance with labor protection and industrial safety requirements (use of gloves when taking blood for the prevention of AIDS). Hygienic standardization is carried out using sanitary and hygienic standards Are installed in legislatively, binding on all departments permissible content levels chemical compounds in environmental objects. Hygienic standards are the levels of harmful production factors, which during daily work (40 hours per week) during the entire working experience should not cause diseases or deviations in health. For the first time in the world in the USSR, since the 1920s, legislation has been introduced on maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances, and the study of their effect on the body has begun. Nowadays, sanitary and hygienic standards exist in all industrialized countries. Since 1992, a mandatory state registration chemical compounds, carried out by the Russian Register of Potentially Hazardous Chemical and Biological Compounds. Hygienic regulation of chemicals is based on following principles: 1) the principle of harmlessness - the effect of the substance on the human body is of paramount importance, and then the economic and technological benefits; 2) the principle of anticipation - the rationale for the development preventive measures opium protection from a harmful substance must precede the moment of its introduction into production; 3) the principle of threshold action - i.e. a decrease in its concentrations to those that do not cause adverse changes (except for threshold mutagenic and carcinogenic ones, which are still insufficiently studied) and 4) the principle of the unity of experimental and field studies, i.e. on animals and on humans. In our country, there are three types of normalization indicators MPC, MPU, OBUV and TAC. Hygienic regulation is based on Scientific research, justifying the harmlessness of a certain concentration of a substance or level of physical impact on a person, as well as the level of their legislative approval for mandatory application in practice. MPC- maximum permissible concentration - used for chemical substances when the effect of the compound has been studied, and the concentration of the substance in the workplace does not affect health or the offspring; is legally approved by a government decree, therefore, it is mandatory for all enterprises. Remote control- the maximum permissible level is the same for physical factors (for example, the level of noise, light, dust concentration on human skin, etc.) SHOES), and for those little studied and not investigated at present - the approximate permissible levels ( ODE). Justification of temporary standards is carried out on the basis of accelerated experimental and computational methods (for OBUV) or by analogy with already known substances (for TAC). Temporary standards are approved by the Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation and are not applied everywhere, but at specific industries. All hygiene standards, after approval, are part of the state sanitary and hygienic norms, rules and standards. ...
      The role of the paramedical worker in public education
Health education(SP) is an integral part of healthcare, it is a complex of medical and social events aimed at shaping healthy way life (healthy lifestyle) and sanitary activity of the population. It includes hygiene education and training. Tasks JV: - improving the hygienic education of the population;
    promotion of healthy lifestyles, physical education and sports; implementation in daily life rational nutrition; eradication bad habits(smoking, drunkenness, gluttony, unreasonable fasting); familiarization of the population with the causes of the main mass diseases and injuries, their
prevention. Principles SP: state character; participation of all health workers; general availability; purposefulness; scientific character; optimism (to raise the psycho-emotional tone); differentiation (taking into account different age groups, gender, age, profession, etc.). Methods JV:
    oral - lecture, conversation, advice, discussion, information message, evening
questions and answers (did you know that ...?), loud reading, quiz;
    printed - memo, leaflet, newspaper article, health bulletin, wall newspaper; visual - posters, transparencies, dummies, mixed photographs - TV performance, exhibition, health corners, coursework, theatrical performances.
Lecture - it outlines new material for a large audience - 20-30 people; duration 30-45 minutes. Conversation - Assumed Active participation listeners, leading her medical worker with his questions actively involves the audience in the discussion; duration 15-30 minutes. An evening of questions and answers - the population is notified in advance, questions are collected and answered. Question and answer board - form of correspondence consultations Memo - handed out to the patient, designed for a specific person, his illness or problem (diabetes prevention). Sanitary Bulletin - a wall newspaper of an educational nature, should be topical, specific, visual, for example: about the benefits of vaccination against diphtheria. Unlike a reminder, a bulletin must have bright picture, which will attract the attention of the contingent for whom it is intended. The memo and sanitary bulletin should have three parts: start with information about the problem, then pay attention to the influence of the factor under discussion on health, and necessarily end with sanitary and hygienic recommendations. The educational nature of campaigning without recommendations cannot solve the problems of health education Posters are a form of mass influence, are campaigning in nature, have bright text in the form of a slogan.

Control questions

An important method in hygienic research is the method of a natural experiment, which makes it possible to trace the influence of environmental factors in real ones, i.e. natural, health conditions. With the help of such an experiment, it is possible to study the health status of the population living on different distances, on real object in specific socio-economic and climatic conditions with different intensities of air pollution, emissions from industrial enterprises or the health status of workers in industrial enterprises with different intensities of air pollution in the working area. This experiment is critical in verifying hygiene standards.

An epidemiological method is specific for hygiene, which makes it possible to study the health of a population under the influence of various endogenous and exogenous factors.

All methods are epidemiological, thanks to which it is possible to determine the presence and nature of the influence of environmental factors on the health of the surveyed people. Using the epidemiological method, the health of an individual as well as a group of people is studied.

In modern conditions, epidemiological research methods are used in the study of risk factors for cardiovascular, oncological and other diseases, as well as accidents in transport and at work, caused by the action of many interrelated factors, in the study of occupational diseases and those associated with environmental pollution. Wednesday.

Classification of risk factors for ischemic disease heart leads, in particular, Yu.M. Komarov (1980):

1) social environment and lifestyle (regular diet rich in animal fats, smoking, sedentary work);

2) biochemist-physiological mechanisms associated with exogenous effects (diet, pharmacological agents): hypercholesterolemia and hyperlipidemia, hyperlipoproteinemia, arterial hypertension, hyperglycemia;

3) systemic organ damage (abnormalities in the ECG, hypothyroidism, renal disease);

4) general biological factors (gender, age).

There are also other elements of risk, namely: excess weight body, rapid pulse at rest, sedentary lifestyle, mental trauma, genetic hereditary diseases, ECG changes at rest, increased levels of uric acid in the blood.

Through epidemiological research, compare health statistics with social and natural conditions and to establish links between socio-economic status and the incidence rate, between air temperature and the incidence of the like. Such observations allow us to put forward a hypothesis about the etiology of the disease. Finally, using epidemiological methods, it is possible to identify the specific conditions and mechanism of the development of the disease in a specific situation.

The etiology of morbidity is formed by the interaction of etiological factors with the human population. If in many non-communicable diseases the nature of the etiological factor remains unknown, then risk factors become of paramount importance. These include elements of the social and natural environment, as well as features of people's behavior or state internal systems organism, increase the risk of disease. The epidemiological method that is used in practical health care is called epidemiological diagnostics.

The structure of epidemiological methods includes sections of techniques that ensure the achievement of research objectives. These include descriptive and evaluative epidemiological methods that substantiate medical problems. The initial data for these studies are accounting and reporting materials, as well as the results of sample studies. The indicators of overall mortality and mortality among different age groups are important.

Analytical epidemiological studies are needed to assess hypotheses about the causes and conditions, that is, the risk factors that led to the emergence and spread of certain diseases, as well as to justify new directions for prevention.

There are two analytical epidemiological methods:

1) studies of the "case - control" type, when they compare information about the effect of a factor on sick and healthy people;

2) a cohort study, i.e. study of a group of people with epidemiological characteristics. In such cases, intensive morbidity rates are determined in cohorts subject and not subject to risk factors.

Known forms of "transverse" (one-step) and "longitudinal" (dynamic) studies.

Experimental epidemiological methods involve the artificial recreation of events or artificial intervention in natural course process. The task of the researcher is to identify the difference in action and compare the results. The state of human health is studied using medical examinations... The method of medical examinations is used for individual or mass examinations.

When studying the state of health of an individual, anthropometric measurements, clinical, physiological, biochemical, immunological studies, X-ray and other examinations are carried out.

The study of individual groups of people or the population of a certain region is carried out using the sanitary-statistical method with the calculation of indicators such as physical development, demographic indicators in the form of fertility, mortality, average duration life, etc., as well as incidence rates. The importance of in this regard, the study of the patterns of the spread of diseases is not only infectious etiology rather than non-infectious.

To characterize the health of the population, data from official accounting documents, reports are used, which contain information for calculating various health indicators using special formulas. Such documents contain information about all diseases, poisoning and injuries in the population, which allows you to determine the primary and general morbidity.

Medical research of certain contingents of people (for example, pupils, students, workers, employees, etc.). It consists in the fact that a group of doctors of different profiles, in particular therapists, surgeons, pediatricians, ophthalmologists, otorhinolaryngologists, dermatologists, dentists and others, examine them under the influence of harmful environmental factors. For this, instrumental and laboratory research, in particular, electrocardiography, electroencephalography, audiometry, etc., as well as the determination of oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin, enzymes and others biochemical parameters... They conduct a survey to determine complaints and risk factors, determine anthropometric data, etc.

The collection of all data on the state of health of the population allows for a generalized assessment of the level of health. For this, mathematical sanitary-statistical methods are widely used in hygiene. These include methods of correlative, regressive, variance, bureaucratic analysis, etc. These methods are necessary for special treatment research results in order to quantitatively characterize the state of health, as well as to quantify the dependence of human health on the impact of the environment. If with the help of qualitative conceptual analysis it is possible to divide the population into health groups, then thanks to mathematical and statistical analysis, a generalized health index of a certain group of people is calculated.

In order to establish a quantitative relationship between environmental factors and health groups or health index, mathematical modeling is used.

The method of medical examination carried out by persons with medical education and special training. Expertise is the conclusion of a knowledgeable person who conducts research on various objects about their compliance with sanitary and hygienic requirements.

Are subject to sanitary examination drinking water, beverages, foodstuffs, equipment, clothing, various businesses, residential buildings, educational establishments and various planning projects.

Since the problem of the interaction of human society and its individual links with the environment is the subject of study of the new interdisciplinary integrative science of socioecology, it is advisable to briefly define some research methods in this area.

The object of socioecology research is the global system "nature - society" and its territorial components, ie socioecosystems. The functions of the regulator are performed by the social component, or human society... The problem of its interaction with the environment is multidimensional and systemic, because anthropogenic activity affects individual components of the ecological subsystem and on it as a whole. In order to optimize the relationship between man and nature, it is necessary to simultaneously study the ecological, geographical, geological, hydrological, meteorological, national, legal, technological and other aspects of this important problem. For the correct management of the harmonious development of the socioecosystem, it is necessary to apply the method of mathematical and cartographic modeling of socioecosystems.

In ecology they use following methods: scientific, for the study of systems, methods of information collection techniques, methods of information processing and methods of the general scheme for studying ecosystems (V.P. Kucheryavy, 2000).

Scientific method environmental studies requires systematic adherence to the following sequential steps:

1) observation;

2) the formulation of the theory of laws;

3) testing the theory;

4) observations that support the theory.

To study systems, three main groups of methods are used:

1) field observations;

2) experiments in the field and laboratory;

3) modeling.

Ecosystems during the collection of information are easy to map and describe, and this makes it possible to separate natural and artificial biogeocenoses, to do environmental monitoring.

Computers are widely used to process information.

The general scheme for studying ecosystems provides for all the stages described above and aims to assess the final results, the previously constructed simulation model and outline the prospects for further research.

Environmental research also includes biosphere research. They are engaged in biosphereology, or global ecology. She processes the forecast possible changes biosphere under the influence of human activities. This science covers the study of energy processes in the biosphere, large cycles of substances. For research use also modern methods aerospace sensing of the Earth.

Discuss the article

The subject of hygiene is not only the determination of the patterns of the influence of environmental factors on health, but also scientific rationale their optimal parameters in order to further develop measures aimed at improving the environment. These measures can relate to the elimination of the causes of diseases, the elimination of conditions conducive to the onset of pathology, and finally, they can enhance the development of protective reactions in the body.

Ukraine has rich history the development of medicine, which is rooted in antiquity and reflects the general culture. The essence of medicine in Ukraine also has specific features that depend on socio-economic conditions, social structure and the development of other branches of science.

Man buys sausage and ham to make a couple of sandwiches for dinner, washing powder to wash a shirt that has been spilled with ketchup, decorative cosmetics to look good. But many do not think about how these products are actually made.

Ferns are very different from other known plants. Of course, they have a general similarity with all plants, but at the same time, their structure is so unlike, for example, the structure of flowering plants, that it will not be possible to distinguish them from them hard work... But at the same time, distinguishing some groups of ferns from others may not be an easy task at all.

The carcinogenic hazard of diesel emissions has been known for a long time. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has assigned them to the "List of Substances, Products, production processes and household factors that are carcinogenic to humans ”.

    Public health and health care is both a science and a teaching subject. Methods of social and hygienic research.

Public health and healthcare – medical science studying the patterns of public health, impact social conditions and environmental factors on the health of the population in order to develop a strategy and tactics of health care, improve medical care the population. The contradictions between scientific and technological progress and the state of health of society in our country arise as a result of the government's underestimation of preventive measures. Consequently, one of the tasks of our science is to uncover such contradictions and develop recommendations for the prevention of negative phenomena and factors that negatively affect the health of society.

The concept of "health care" means activities to preserve, improve,

ensuring and strengthening the health of various groups of the population. The second part of the science of public health and health care includes the development of scientifically-based, the most optimal methods of health care management, new forms and methods of work of various medical institutions, ways to improve the quality of medical care, substantiates optimal solutions to economic and managerial problems in health care.

As a teaching subject public health and healthcare primarily contributes to improving the quality of training of future specialists - doctors; the formation of their skills not only to be able to correctly diagnose and treat the patient, but also the ability to organize high level medical services, the ability to clearly organize their activities.

Public health and health care have their own and research methods. These methods are: statistical, historical, economic, experimental, time studies, sociological methods and others. Statistical method is widely used in most studies: it allows you to objectively determine the level of health of the population, to determine the effectiveness and quality of the work of medical institutions. Historical method allows in the study to trace the state of the problem under study at different historical stages of the country's development. Economic method The issues of planning the financial activities of health care authorities and medical institutions, the most rational use of funds, the assessment of the effectiveness of health care actions to improve the health of the population and the impact of these actions on the country's economy - all this constitutes the subject economic research in the field of health care.

Experimental the method includes the setting of various experiments to find new, most rational forms and methods of work of medical institutions, individual health services.

    Basic principles of health protection citizens of the Russian Federation, their comparative analysis with the principles of Soviet health care.

Basic principles of health protection for citizens of the Russian Federation is a set of political, legal and medical measures aimed at preserving and strengthening the physical and mental health of citizens of the Russian Federation and providing assistance in case of loss of health.

The main principles of protecting the health of citizens are:

1) observance of human and civil rights in the field of health protection and provision of state guarantees related to these rights;

2) the priority of preventive measures in the field of public health protection;

3) the availability of medical and social assistance;

4) social security of citizens in case of loss of health;

5) the responsibility of public authorities and management, enterprises, institutions and organizations, regardless of the form of ownership, officials for ensuring the rights of citizens in the field of health protection

The main principles of Soviet health care were: the state nature and planning, the preventive direction, the general availability, free and high quality of medical care, the unity of medical science and health care practice, the participation of the public and the broad masses of workers in the activities of health authorities and institutions.

    Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the protection of the health of citizens and the main sections of their content.

Article 41 of the RF. Sections - 1. general provisions

2. competence in the field of health protection of citizens of the Russian Federation.

3.organization of health protection.

4. the rights of citizens in the field of health protection

5.Rights of individual groups 6.Rights of citizens in the provision of medical and social assistance

6. honey family planning activities.

7.Grantee Implementation Aid

8. honey examination.

9 social protection of pharmaceutical workers.

10.international cooperation

11.responsibility for harm to health

    Human health, public health and factors affecting it.

health

« Public health- the most important economic and social potential of the country, due to the impact of various environmental factors and lifestyle of the population, which allows to ensure the optimal level of quality and safety of life. "

Unlike various clinical disciplines, public health studies the state of health not of individual individuals, but of collectives, social groups and society as a whole in connection with the conditions and way of life.

Public health identifies the patterns of population development, examining demographic processes, predicts the future, develops recommendations for state regulation of the population. Determinants of public health:

Social economy

(labor conditions, housing services, material well-being)

Natural and climatic

(presence of fluoride in water, level of solar radiation, average annual temperature)

Biological

(parents' age, gender, constitution)

Medical

(level and organization of medical care)

Health is due to:

50% lifestyle

20% - heredity

20% - ecology

By 8-12% - the state of honey. help

Indicators characterizing health:

Medical and demographic

(Fertility rates, mortality rates, natural increase, average life expectancy)

Disability indicators

Incidence rates

Physical development

    Population health, the concept of types

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health, as a state of complete physical, spiritual and social well-being, and not just the absence of diseases and physical defects.

Population health - the third level of population health assessment -

Z.N- administrative-territorial unit.

Resources- are determined by the moral position of a person and they are aimed at improving the level of health and ensuring a healthy lifestyle.

The basic concept is health, absence of diseases, norm, disease. Health and norm are identical concepts.

    Formation of a healthy lifestyle, the role of hygienic education in maintaining the health of the population, including dental. Health center and its tasks.

Healthy lifestyle- Conscious of its necessity, the constant implementation of hygienic norms and rules that contribute to the preservation and strengthening of individual and public health.

Lifestyle in general is a system of human behavior in the process of life, based on personal experience, traditions, accepted norms of behavior, on the knowledge of the laws of life and motives for self-realization. healthy lifestyle- this is the most optimal system of human behavior in everyday life, allowing him to maximize his spiritual and physical qualities to achieve mental, physical and social well-being. This is an integral, logically interconnected, thoughtful and planned system of human behavior, which he implements not under compulsion, but with pleasure and confidence that it will give positive results. TO positively factors affecting human health include: - observance of the daily regimen, balanced nutrition, hardening, physical education and sports, good relationships with people around, to negative- smoking, drinking alcohol, drugs, emotional and mental stress when communicating with others, as well as an unfavorable environmental situation in places of residence.