Russian enlightenment of the 18th century and its ideology. World history: the formation of an industrial civilization. The myth of the existence of scientists independent from the state

• On the approaches to the Enlightenment
• Academy of Arts

Today, on the Day of Knowledge, we remember those who stood at the origins of Russian education and science and pursued the noble goal of making Russia a strong and enlightened power, as well as what Russian universities were famous for, which for a long time were in the shadow of Western landmarks and achievements.

Russian science is unthinkable without the reforms of Peter I and Elizabeth, the scientific discoveries of Mikhail Lomonosov, the craving for art and encyclopedic knowledge of Catherine the Great, the flexible mind of her intellectual companion and rival Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova and, of course, Shuvalov and Ivan Ivanovich Betsky. All these outstanding personalities moved our country forward, breaking the stereotype about its inertia and deep backwardness. Opening of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Smolny Institute and Moscow University, compilation explanatory dictionary, the popularization of the Russian language and the attraction of the best foreign specialists to teaching - these are their merits. How did this thorny path, the history of Russian education begin, and how sweet were the fruits of the national Enlightenment?

On the approaches to the Enlightenment

« Eternal snow, everyone walks in fur coats and everyone is military, but the hospitality is extraordinary and all the peasants are very obedient! " - this is the most widespread opinion about Russia, which was broadcast by Frau Lenore in Turgenev's "Spring Waters" - and this was in 1840!

In the 18th century, in the eyes of foreigners, our country looked like a kind of strange frozen and semi-wild state, which was in no way associated with progress and European openness of views. But we must pay tribute: at any time there were people who skillfully refuted this stereotype - and not in words, but decisive action... Peter I is rightfully considered the most significant figure in the process of large-scale transformations of our fatherland. " Being a wanderer, in dust and sweat, Great Peter, like a god, Shone with majesty in his work: Honored and a hero in rags!"- wrote about him Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin. It is noteworthy that the Russian tsar for the first time went abroad not as a monarch, but as a diligent student, tuned in to the study of the European way of life. He worked 14 hours a day and mastered 12 professions at once, including a carpenter, a shipbuilder, a turner, a watchmaker, a doctor, an artilleryman, a bricklayer - the restless Peter was proud of his every role. It was to this tsar that the idea of ​​opening secular educational institutions in Russia belonged, because before his reforms, education was religious, and there was an urgent need for pundits in those days it was not, so it is not surprising that even the nobles could not boast of impeccable literacy.

The ambitious Peter tried in every possible way to lead the country out of cultural isolation, which earned himself both loyal supporters and irreconcilable enemies who called him nothing less than the Antichrist. (However, any innovation always causes a surge of contradictory emotions, but its true meaning is sensibly realized much later.) By the Tsar's decree of January 14, 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened in Moscow - and it was she who became the first secular institution in Russia , where, moreover, not only noble children could receive education, but also the offspring of clerks and other unnatural service people. I must say, an unheard-of transformation at that time. But of course, Peter did not focus on all existing sciences, but primarily on naval and medical science. Already in 1707, he opened a Medical School at a military hospital in Moscow and a Surgical School in St. Petersburg (both later became academies). Add to this the so-called digital and soldier schools, which were designed to prepare literate people for the future public service.

And a year before his death, in 1724, Peter I opened the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, which became the focus of the best minds in Europe. German mathematician Goldbach, French astronomer Delisle, chemist Burger, professor of jurisprudence Bekenstein and many others then lectured for Russian students. Unfortunately, with the death of Peter the Great, the activities of the academy were in limbo: the status of science in our country was too vague. New life only the daughter of the tsar-reformer Elizaveta Petrovna breathed into it, who approved the regulations and staff of this institution (this happened already at the end of the 1740s).

"Merry Queen" and Russian Science

« Life in Russia has never been so easy since the reign of Tsarevna Sophia", - wrote Klyuchevsky about the era of Elizabeth, worthy of her father's daughter, who in every possible way continued his work, but with only one fundamental difference- bloodless. Despite the fact that the empress was a ball lover and a real fashionista (according to rumors, 15 thousand dresses were kept in her wardrobes, and she did not wear one twice), she not only had fun and flaunted, but also strengthened relations with England and Holland and achieved that that the important imperial status of Russia was recognized by the leading European powers. Much has been done for science.

The glorious name of Elizabeth was tirelessly glorified by Lomonosov in his odes, because it was with her that the Moscow University and the Academy of Arts were established (its opening was Peter's dream, which he did not have time to realize), as well as the Drama Theater and the first gymnasiums.

During the reign of the "merry queen" St. Petersburg itself acquired an elegant look " harmonious handwriting of Rastrelli - oratorio of stucco lace", As the modern poet Aleksey Pudin put it, decorated the main architectural ensembles of the city. The Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Smolny Monastery and the Winter Palace - all this was created by an Italian architect, thanks to whom the gloomy capital, traditionally painted in lead tones, sparkled with gilding, warm ocher, creamy whiteness and pale blue azure.

Moscow University and Lomonosov's merits

The establishment of Moscow University took place on January 25, 1755. " The dear Elizabeth, after her accession to the throne of All Russia, gave everyone the right to study any sciences free of charge both at Moscow University, founded by her in 1755, and in the naval cadet corps, opened at the same time, where sciences are taught to the poor nobles, of which this frame", - the envoy of Louis XV Douglas reported to his king. This step was of tremendous importance for the country: now a representative of any class (except for serfs) could receive education - the main thing was talent and craving for knowledge. And how can one fail to recall Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, who, although he did not teach at the university, but contributed to its opening and strove to have lectures read in Russian. Salient feature: Among the invited academicians, only two were Russian subjects (N.N. Popovsky, professor of eloquence and master of philosophy, and A.A. Barsov, mathematician and expert in literature). True, Lomonosov's desire to make lectures Russian-speaking was realized only after his death: such a decree was already issued by Catherine II.

Initially, Moscow University trained only doctors, lawyers and philosophers, and the process itself was extremely slow. So, in 1758 there were only 100 students and only 30 of them received a scholarship (40 rubles a year), while others studied at their own expense.

Speaking about Moscow University, it is important to mention its curator Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov and the first director Alexei Mikhailovich Argamakov, who, although he held his post for only two years, managed to enrich it with the breadth of his views. He was a student at the Geneva Academy, attended lectures on jurisprudence, anatomy and mathematics, had a good command of French and actively traveled around Europe (a sort of classic model a real enlightened person). But, unfortunately, in 1757, during one of his working trips to St. Petersburg, Argamakov died suddenly, not having time to implement all the ideas.

But Shuvalov succeeded not only in managing the Moscow University, but also became the first director of the Academy of Arts - another Peter and Elizabethan brainchild, which is worth telling in more detail.

Academy of Arts

The Academy of Arts, located on Universitetskaya Embankment in St. Petersburg, has produced a whole galaxy of brilliant artists belonging to different generations. Fedor Rokotov, Karl Bryullov, Mikhail Vrubel, Ivan Aivazovsky, Alexander Benois, portrait painters of the Enlightenment, marine painters, battle painters, symbolists - they were all brought up within the walls of this educational institution, opened in 1757 on the initiative of Lomonosov and Shuvalov.

It was Ivan Ivanovich who became the first president and, perhaps, one of the main inspirers and patrons of the arts, along with the architect Kokorinov. Shuvalov invited teachers from abroad (from France, Italy and Germany) and in 1758 he recruited a debut course for future artists from 38 students - 11 nobles and 27 commoners. He also temporarily provided his mansion on Sadovaya for conducting classes, and then several residential buildings between the 3rd and 4th lines of Vasilyevsky Island. In addition, Ivan Ivanovich presented the Academy with 101 works of art, dozens of prints and drawings by European artists, as well as expensive books, among which were, for example, a work on the anatomy of the Belgian surgeon Adrian Spigelia and the album “Palaces of Genoa” by Rubens. Despite the powerful recharge, as in the case of Moscow University, studying proccess developed slowly at first - many nobles were skeptical about the very occupation fine arts, considering it a simple craft, unworthy of their attention. But over time, this opinion failed, because some of the students of the Academy had the opportunity to train abroad, for example, Fyodor Rokotov, who, returning from Paris, painted a portrait of Catherine II. The demanding empress was pleased with this "profile, almost heraldic in its perfection" and henceforth instructed to depict her face according to the originals of the young artist.

As a matter of fact, the very process of training in four departments (painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture) could not be called simple. Students got up at 5 in the morning and finished classes only at 10 in the evening. For each pupil, dozens of brushes, a pound of soot, Florentine varnish, primers were allocated annually, linseed oil, cinnabar, bohra and umber ... Students worked, starting with copying and improving in the chosen techniques.

And here's a curious fact: according to one of the versions, Catherine II specially ordered to make a round courtyard inside the Academy, the area of ​​which is equal to the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, so that the pupils would be inspired and “correlate with it” in their work. The idea of ​​perfection and graceful aesthetics permeated literally all areas of that era.

Enlightened friend of Catherine the Great

Another figure associated both with the Academy of Arts and with other educational institutions was Catherine the Great's colleague Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy, who replaced Shuvalov as director.

Betskoy was born in Stockholm and spent most of his life abroad, far from his homeland. He was brilliantly educated, fluent in French and German, was fond of the ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire and Diderot, possessed an impressive fortune and had the opportunity to communicate with the most enlightened people in Europe and august persons... But still, despite the European breadth of views and long life outside Russia. Ivan Ivanovich was a real patriot of his country. In 1762 he returned to his homeland and soon became the personal secretary of Catherine II. She changed maids of honor, repelled favorites, but she invariably listened to Betsky.

They had a lot in common: education, fine taste, interest in the idea of ​​rationalism, enthusiasm for encyclopedists ... Both wanted to create, like Pygmalion, their enlightened Galateas, people of a new era, forever breaking with illiteracy and having the opportunity to freely obtain high-quality knowledge. Let's give it credit: in this they are very successful. Thanks to Betsky, educational home for illegitimate children, a commercial school for merchant offspring, a school at the Academy of Sciences and the Imperial Educational Society noble girls(the future Smolny Institute), and the land nobility corps was also transformed. Ivan Ivanovich sincerely believed that education best qualities possible only without coercion and physical punishment, and the teacher should be a model for his students.

Smolyanka and female education

The Imperial Educational Society for Noble Maidens, established in 1764, was called “ give the state educated women, good mothers, useful family and community members". Such an eloquent pretentious formulation, naturally, caused skepticism: only the lazy one did not joke about the young ladies from Smolny, who spoke foreign languages, who knew how to draw and talk about the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, but completely cut off from real life... They joked, and meanwhile, many famous personalities chose Smolyanoks for their life companions. So, the writer Radishchev, the poet Kapnist and Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Dolgorukov were married precisely to the graduates of the Institute of Noble Maidens. And how many outstanding pupils showed themselves in the rebellious XX century!

But let's go back to the 18th century, when the Smolyanki are just beginning their education. So how did the learning process take place? It lasted for 12 years (despite the fact that the parents had no right to "recall" their child back) and was divided into four stages. The youngest pupils, or "coffee houses", as they were called by the color of their dress, studied the Law of God, Russian and foreign languages, arithmetic, drawing, handicrafts, dancing and music. From 9 to 12 years old, young ladies were taught history and geography, and also introduced to the basics of doing household... At the next stage, the girls were taught the previous disciplines, adding physics, literature, the basics of heraldry, architecture and poetry. And in the final year (from 15 to 18 years old), the students, who were called "white" - again by the color of their dress, deepened all the knowledge they had acquired before leaving the alma mater.

And here's what is important: Betskoy not only knew all the Smolyan women by name, but also treated them with paternal sympathy, arranged for them special evenings and "supervised" the young ladies after graduation. It's hard to believe, but an imposing old man in a gray wig, an influential and educated husband, was shy in their presence! Especially in communication with Glafira Alymova - her main sympathy. The girl, by the way, made a good career at the court, becoming the maid of honor of Catherine II, the wife of Privy Councilor Alexei Rzhevsky and one of the first harpists in our country.

But Ivan Ivanovich, alas, never created his own family, and by the end of his life he was even distanced by the empress from educational affairs. Catherine II did not like when someone "appropriates himself to the glory of the sovereign."

Ekaterina Malaya and her educational merits

Another important person in Russian education was Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova, an ambitious companion of the Empress and one of the most enlightened women of her era (it was not for nothing that she was called Catherine Malaya by analogy with the Great). By the way, for the notorious "appropriation of state glory" she also got it from the queen, who characterized her friend as follows: " She is very smart, but with great vanity she combines an eccentric character.". Ekaterina Romanovna really was a lady of encyclopedic knowledge, and in some places her intellectual superiority reached the point of comic: she could interrupt the performance in order to correct the speech mistakes of the actors, or even the church service, if suddenly the priest turned out to be insufficiently literate. Dashkova retained her cool temper and categorical judgment to the very gray hairs. For example, she once stated the following to the publisher of Russkiy Vestnik: “ I volunteer to be your employee, only with an agreement: I am persistent and even capricious in my opinion and in my syllable, I ask you not to change my letter, comma, or dot».

What did this woman do for Russian education? First, in 1783, Ekaterina Dashkova became the director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In addition, the active princess was the initiator of the creation of the Russian Academy, the main goal of which was the study of the Russian language. She attracted specialists, tried to open public courses, actively sought to establish the work of printing houses and publishing houses ... It was Dashkova who invited scientists to create the first Russian explanatory dictionary and wrote a number of definitions for it with her own hand, carefully selecting as many as 700 words for the letters "t", "h" and "w". And here's the paradox: for a long time this woman did not speak Russian, but in the end she became its most active advocate! Who knows how far Dashkova would have progressed in her educational experiments if not for her rash step: in 1795, the disgraced play Vadim Novgorodsky by Yakov Knyazhnin was published in the Russian Theater, published at the Academy of Sciences. Catherine II did not forgive such liberties. Dashkova was excommunicated from all posts.

Significance of the Russian Enlightenment of the 18th century

The era of the Enlightenment gave Russian society a lot of opportunities: women were finally able to get an education, the Russian language became more accessible, and class barriers were gradually minimized. Of course, this process was long and met with a lot of smiles, but in the end the reasonable began to win, which means that all the efforts of the best minds of our fatherland were not in vain. Otherwise, you would not be reading these lines now ...

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Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750) became one of the first Russian thinkers who, already in the first half of the 18th century, saw new phenomena in the life of Russia and tried to comprehend them from an educational standpoint. Realizing that Russia needs to find its own historical path leading to the future, Tatishchev tried to use the most modern achievements of Western European science at that time, refracting them in accordance with domestic historical experience. That is why he turned out to be the person who stood at the origins of many trends in Russian philosophical and socio-political life.

So, for the first time in the history of Russian social thought, Tatishchev considered all problems from the standpoint of philosophical deism, the foundations of the entire educational worldview. Deists in their teachings combined materialistic and idealistic views. This connection was most often mechanical, which is why deism has always been internally contradictory. But the very fact that the deists equalize Divine Providence (that is, ideal) and "natural being" (that is, material) played a significant role in history.

In his work "Lexicon of the Russian Historical, Geographical, Political and Civil" Tatishchev gives precisely the deistic definition of the concept of "nature" ("nature"). This definition is controversial. On the one hand, God is "the beginning of all things in the world," and on the other, God also enters into the concept of "nature", along with "creation" (animals). On the one hand, nature is determined by the Wisdom of God, and on the other hand, things, bodies and even "spirits" are in a certain common natural state for all of them.

It is in this contradictory understanding of the essence of God's relationship with the world that something new lies in Russian social thought. Tatishchev's God dissolves in nature, unites with "nature". Therefore, Tatishchev's definition of "nature" is a deistic attempt to find a definition of a certain substance, even "matter", as a certain single state of all living things, all things and even human souls. In other words, Tatishchev seeks to rise to a view of nature, on the world as a "whole".

And if Tatishchev pondered the problems of the relationship between the material and the ideal from a deistic point of view purely theoretically, then later M.V. Lomonosov, trying to connect philosophy with the conclusions of natural science, began to look for natural-scientific proofs of the materiality of the world.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765), following Tatishchev, but independently of him, came to the recognition of the unity of nature. “I find nature everywhere similar to myself, - he wrote. - I see that the rays from the most distant stars come to us, with the same law in disgust and refraction, which both solar and earthly fire rays will follow and for this the same means and they have properties. Similarly, making sure that in comets the air and vapors are the same as the local ones, have properties. "

Lomonosov also pondered a lot about the concept of "matter". In his works, you can find several definitions clarifying each other. "Matter is what the body consists of and on which its essence depends," he wrote in "An Experiment on the Theory of Insensitive Particles". Elsewhere there is a definition: "... Matter is an extended impermeable, divisible into insensitive parts (first, however, it must be said that bodies consist of matter and form, and show that the latter depends on the former)."

It can be noted that Tatishchev's understanding of the essence of "nature" was more dialectical. In other words, Tatishchev was theoretically aware of the complex dialectical interpenetration of the ideal and the material. Lomonosov went further, proving the independence of the second from the first, emphasizing precisely the materiality of the surrounding world. Historically, this was apparently inevitable, but the views of M.V. Lomonosov are more mechanistic in comparison with the philosophical views of V.N. Tatishchev.

Other Russian enlighteners also adhered to the deistic picture of the world, for the most part continuing the Lomonosov line. Interesting in this regard are the judgments of Dmitry Sergeevich Anichkov (1733-1788) about the relationship between soul and body, that is, the ideal and the material in his "Word about different ways, the closest union of the soul with the body of those who explain. "Another thinker of the second half of the 18th century, Yakov Pavlovich Kozelsky (1728-1794), in his work" Philosophical Proposals ", speaking about nature (that is, nature), strictly distinguishes between" natural "and natural from “above-natural”, “above-natural” or supernatural. “Nature,” he writes, “is the active force of every thing, and therefore the natural is called that which from the force and essence of which thing can be understood and interpreted; for example, the natural matter of fire is to burn; and what of the power and essence of a thing cannot be understood and explained, it is called a higher natural, higher natural, or miracle; for example, the above-natural thing, or miracle, was that the prophet Moses, with a blow of a rod, drained water from a stone. "

Pafnuti Sergeevich Baturin (1740/1741 - 1803) drew on materialistic ideas to prove the harmfulness of Freemasonry in his treatise "Investigation of the Book of Errors and Truth", in which he criticized the teachings of the great Western European mystic Freemason L. Saint-Martin, set forth in the book "On delusions and truth "(it was translated into Russian by Russian masons and published in Moscow).

Russian enlighteners tried to express their philosophical views in literary, even poetic form... Pyotr Andreevich Slovtsov (1767-1843) in his literary and philosophical treatise "Matter" (1796) wrote:

Although the incomprehensible sim reason
I hesitate to accept idealism
However, I dare to defend with Straton
Substance system versus sophism.
Matter, forming all masses
And an endless chain of creatures connecting,
It covers everything up to the back ring:
From a rough lump even to the Creator.
She, in various types of dressing up,
Lives in insects and in an elephant;
And changing colors of colors,
Shines in a clear ice floe and in fire,
In the rain it plays with scarlet arcs,
And in the Nordic clouds of fire.

History shows that the enlightenment's fascination with deism became one of the stages in the birth and spread of materialistic teachings. However, the materialism of the 18th century found its extreme forms of expression - up to atheism - only in the French enlightenment, as already mentioned.

And yet, the problem remains. The contradictory perception of the idea of ​​God by the enlighteners, their desire to explain everything and everything by natural causes played a double role in history. On the one hand, their propaganda of scientific knowledge, their open praise of human freedom, as it were, moved the entire European civilization forward, liberating the human personality. But, on the other hand, the result of this perception of the world was the ever-widening conviction of people in their ability to live without God, moreover, to arrange life better than god... The rejection of understanding the world as a Divine Creation also meant rejection of the eternal and Highest truths. It turned out that a person himself, without God's help, can build a just and happy world. If there is no God with his laws, then a person must establish his own laws, decide for himself how to live.

Historical experience testifies that the rejection of the Higher, Divine truths always leads a person not to happiness, but to the triumph of spontaneity, to a rather quick replacement of the Heavenly God by the earthly God, to the emergence of religiosity in other, lower, more distorted, "idolatrous" forms. By the way, this happened already at the end of the 18th century, when the Jacobins tried to establish a new religious cult of Reason in France.

And in this sense, the 18th century became a time when a European man for the first time in recent centuries wondered - what is he capable of, without God? Naturally, a similar question arose before the Russian people.

However, the Russian enlighteners of the 18th century never denied the very idea of ​​God. And this is not accidental, because for the Russian consciousness in general, and Russian philosophizing, in particular, the most organic has always been and remains the religious-mythological worldview. Likewise, the thinkers of the eighteenth century were critical of the church, and not of religion as such. Moreover, the main goal of Russian enlightenment was the same, inherent in all domestic wisdom, the desire to understand the final plan of God, but not with the help of theology, but through the human mind, with the help of science. (By the way, actually atheism and materialism on Russian soil appeared quite late - in the second half of the 19th century.). But in the 18th century, science achieved amazing success, discovering more and more new "secrets of nature." Well, how could one not get carried away with the study of "natural" laws!

So the enlighteners clothed their deistic worldview in the form of "natural law" or, in other words, in the form of the theory of "natural law". The origins of the theory of "natural law" go back to Aristotle. However, it fully took shape during the 17th-18th centuries in line with the teachings of the New Age.

What is this "natural law"? Already V.N. Tatishchev understood that the world develops according to certain laws - according to the Divine, which was originally laid down by the Lord, and according to the "natural", which is developed in the world (nature and society) by itself. At the same time, Tatishchev did not deny Divine law in favor of the "natural", but tried, again deistically, to combine these two laws.

The most important thing in Tatishchev's reasoning about the "natural law" is that reasonable love for oneself or, in other words, the principle "comes first." reasonable selfishness", this is the essence of the" natural law. "In this case, the goal of a person's existence is to achieve" true well-being, that is, peace of mind and conscience. " that for the first time in the history of Russian social thought, VN Tatishchev placed man at the center of his concept.Man is the starting point of Vasily Nikitich's entire world outlook.

A similar anthropocentric orientation was continued and developed by other thinkers in the second half of the 18th century. Nikolai Nikitich Popovsky (1726-1760) included the doctrine of man and his welfare in his definition of the subject of philosophy. He believed that "well-being, that is, all our actions, external and internal natural cause, in its most authentic form shows his face. "About the same said in his" Speeches "and" Words "professor of Moscow University Anton Alekseevich Barsov (1730-1791), when he argued that philosophy" acquires reason for a firm knowledge of truth, so that Finally, he could know what our true well-being is. "Ya.P. Kozelsky expressed himself in the same spirit:" It seems to me that it is better to define philosophy as the science of well-being, "because philosophy" gives a person all kinds of good means to acquire well-being. "

However, so great attention, given by the enlighteners to the theme of a "free", "egoistic" person, in Russia had its own moral justification and a very rigid framework.

Close attention to individuality, highlighting the consciousness of a separate individual, as the basis of consciousness in general, began in Europe in the Renaissance, resulting in the philosophy of humanism. The modern era is characterized by rationalism, as an ideological expression of new relations, which is more "selfish" in comparison with humanism.

But in the middle of the 18th century, the theory of "natural law" with its preaching of "reasonable egoism" had a completely different character than in later times, when the bourgeois "egoistic man" began both in theory and in real life to deny the Christian norms of morality and ethics, and own desires and began to declare aspirations public needs.

According to the enlighteners, the feelings and will of a person must be restrained by reason, otherwise existence human society just impossible. Yes, a person is obliged to proceed in everything from "benefit for himself", but he must do this rationally, correlating his desires with the desires of other people and society as a whole.

Tatishchev also wrote: "Tako, a person naturally wants to be prosperous, but we cannot acquire and preserve it without the help of others, because we must, from whom we received any kind of love or mercy, love in return, or from whom we hope more mercy, to receive help or good deed, we must express to him equal borrowings from us. " Tatishchev was echoed by N.N. Popovsky, who argued that the main objective science - to look for "ways and means of all human well-being." In addition, he said that “in our happiness we should not reason only according to our state, but according to the general end and the good of all creatures. "

Rationalistic thinking forced in the 18th century to seek in any business, first of all, "benefit". The idea of ​​the "common good" dominated both the theoretical treatises of Western European scholars and the practical deeds of the rulers of European states. And it is quite understandable that the specific content of this "general benefit" varied significantly in the understanding of various historical figures. For Russian educators, the idea of ​​the "common benefit" was rather early and firmly transformed into the idea of ​​"the benefit of the Fatherland."

Therefore, the most important human duty Russian enlighteners considered service to their Fatherland, for the sake of which, in their opinion, it is impossible to spare neither strength, nor health, nor "one's belly." As Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) wrote, "a true man and a son of the Fatherland are one and the same." A "true man" "is aflame with the most tender love for the integrity and tranquility of his compatriots; ... overcomes all obstacles, tirelessly watches over the preservation of honesty, gives good advice and instructions, helps the unfortunate, relieves of dangers, delusions and vices, and if you are sure of that that his death will bring strength and glory to the Fatherland, he is not afraid to sacrifice his life ... "

But one should serve wisely in order to bring benefit to the Fatherland, not harm. A.N. Radishchev, following the above words, noted that if the Fatherland needs a person's life, "it preserves it for the full observance of natural and domestic laws; as far as possible, he averts everything that can tarnish the purity and weaken the well-intentioned thereof (that is, laws.) - S.P.), as if I destroy the bliss and perfection of my compatriots. "

A similar approach was characteristic of Russian philosophy in general. Russian thinkers have always put the interests of society and Russia as a whole to the fore. Such is the peculiarity of our history, such is our life and historical experience, which dictated the main condition for an independent, independent existence The Russian state- "stand at the same time". So the enlighteners even subordinated the seemingly purely "egoistic" theory of rationalism to public, national interests.

Awareness of the deep interconnection of the fate of an individual with the fate of all of Russia on long time It also determined that, starting from the 18th century, the position of the Russian people became the most important subject of reflections, sometimes painful reflections of Russian thinkers. It was the enlighteners who first critically looked at the basis of the foundations - serfdom, for it was the serfdom of the peasants that came into conflict with the idea of ​​"the benefit of the Fatherland."

Already in the 30s of the 18th century V.N. Tatishchev came to the conclusion: "Will, by its nature, is only needful and useful to a person, that no prosperity can be equal to it and nothing is worthy of it, because whoever deprives of will is deprived of all well-being or is not reliable to acquire and maintain." After this thought, Tatishchev makes a digression, arguing that in order to ensure a normal community, it is necessary to conclude a "social contract" between different categories population. In other words, "a bondage bridle is put to the will of man for his own benefit."

Leading different examples"the reins of bondage," Tatishchev also calls serfdom as an agreement between a serf and a master. However, already at the end of his life, he expressed serious doubts about the economic efficiency and feasibility of serfdom. Moreover, he believed that the introduction of serfdom at the beginning of the 17th century brought great harm to Russia (caused the Troubles) and called for seriously considering the issue of "restoring" the liberties of the peasants that were once in Russia. And it is not for nothing that the words belong to him: "... Slavery and bondage against the Christian law."

The educators of the second half of the 18th century also great importance gave the legal status of the peasantry in the Russian state. Some of them accepted Active participation in the work of the Legislative Commission, a representative body for the development of a new set of laws - the Code. The work of this commission did not give any practical results, for the most radical-minded deputies, according to the government, went too far in their proposals.

Characteristic in this respect is the note of Semyon Efimovich Desnitsky (c. 1740-1789), professor of jurisprudence at Moscow University, "The idea of ​​establishing legislative, judicial and punitive power in Russian Empire SE Desnitsky rather sharply advocated ensuring the rights of the peasantry, as he said, of the "lower clan": ". He also sharply demanded to stop the sale of peasants, because they are" disgusting to philanthropy, harmful to the state, harmful to the landlords themselves. "

Desnitsky's colleague, Professor Ivan Andreevich Tretyakov (1735-1776), spoke out in defense of the peasants, who argued the complete economic failure of serf labor. Aleksey Yakovlevich Polenov (1738-1816) also condemned the arbitrariness and lawlessness of the landowners, who wrote a whole essay entitled "On the serfdom of the peasants in Russia." In this work, he argued that slavery is a consequence of violence in wars, i.e. slaves are prisoners captured in wars. As for the current state of affairs, Polenov considered a number of measures necessary to improve the situation of the peasants, for the peasants were humiliated and oppressed: 1) the elimination of human trafficking, 2) the strengthening of the education of the peasants, 3) the permission of the peasants' ownership of movable property, 4) the introduction of peasant courts (at that time the landowners judged their peasants at their own discretion)

Theoretically substantiated the need for equality of all people N.N. Popovsky: “We are all equal by nature, and there is no worthy one, because God loves no one more than others, therefore, happiness should be one and the same for everyone. Therefore, health, beauty, nobility, wealth and others cannot be the first and general bliss; not everyone gets them before, and, moreover, they are changed, and everyone should have happiness continuously. "

Russian enlighteners of the 18th century did a lot to promote the ideas of equality. However, one should not conclude from this that their worldview is "revolutionary". Most of them could not be revolutionaries by the very logic of historical development, and they should not have been. After all, it is worth repeating, the enlighteners acted as spokesmen for the interests of the entire nation, the entire Fatherland, sought to take into account in their "Words", "Speeches", "Discussions" and "Conversations" the requirements of various social forces, to bring them to a certain common denominator. They were looking for ways and means to achieve the prosperity of their own Fatherland.

That is why they all perfectly understood and actively supported the idea of ​​a single national state, the idea of ​​Russia as a great power.

What could be the form of this state? Most enlighteners saw the Russian state as autocratic, headed by a "good tsar" - a "philosopher on the throne", "an enlightened monarch." In their opinion, the people conclude a "social contract" with the monarch in order for the latter to ensure a dignified existence of the state, observe the laws, and take care of his people. "The wise and true sovereign," said, for example, N.N. Popovsky, "who cares about the means of correcting morals, that is, enlightening his subjects by teaching. Judges, with the help of sound philosophy, interpreting laws not by words and external signs, but by the most circumstances and justice, cut off the way for shameless slanderers to use monarchist institutions for evil, and, under the guise of law, illegally oppress innocent citizenship. "

"Subjects," Nikolai Nikitich argued, "through a kind and honest upbringing, gain noble thoughts, right reasoning, opinions intact about any thing ... An enlightened mind gives them a detailed concept of true evil and good; teaches friendliness, unfeigned frankness and innocent behavior." ...

But here's what's interesting. It was reflections on the good of the Fatherland, on the greatness of the Russian people that led the enlighteners to fairly free-thinking conclusions. It has already been said about the position of the enlighteners on the peasant question. But the merit of the thinkers of the 18th century is not only that they raised the peasant problem, but also that they saw its direct connection with the political system. Even V.N. Tatishchev cautiously remarked in this regard: the liberty of the peasants "does not agree with our monarchical form of government, and it is unsafe to change the ingrained custom of bondage."

However, reflecting on the essence of Russian statehood, Tatishchev came to the conclusion that in Russia the most expedient form of state can only be a monarchy. Geographic conditions, the size of the territory, the level of education of the people - these are the main factors that determine the form of the state in a particular country. Russia is a great state both geographically and politically. In such great states, according to Tatishchev, there can be neither democracy nor aristocracy, as evidence of which he cites numerous examples of the harm of both for Russia - Troubles, "seven-boyars", etc. we all are more useful, but other things are dangerous. " Due to the vastness of the territories, the complexity of geography and, most importantly, the ignorance of the people, V.N. Tatishchev believed that for Russia the most acceptable state system was the monarchy.

But the fact is that Vasily Nikitich thought of the monarchy in Russia not as absolute and uncontrollably autocratic, but, firstly, enlightened, and, secondly, limited by law. This is clearly evidenced by his draft of a limited (constitutional) monarchy, which he wrote in 1730. Of course, the project could not be implemented, but it shows exactly in which direction educational thought developed in Russia.

However, not all domestic enlighteners followed in the footsteps of Tatishchev in solving political issues, however, the ideas of limiting the autocracy of the monarch were used by some of them.

So, S.E. Desnitsky, in his note on the new political structure of the Russian Empire, submitted to the Legislative Commission ("The idea of ​​establishing legislative, judicial and punitive power in the Russian Empire"), proposed introducing a mandatory separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers, as well as establishing an elected "governing senate" with sufficiently broad powers, i.e. establish a kind of constitutional monarchy.

The political structure proposed by Desnitsky was as follows. At the head of the state, of course, is the monarch. Legislative power is represented by a "governing senate" elected from all estates (with the exception of serfs) in the amount of 600-800 people. The judiciary is the province's permanently present collegiums of 12 people. Executive power (in Desnitsky's terminology, "punitive power"): a voivode appointed to the province by the monarch, but under the control of the courts. Finally, civil power is a kind of urban self-government (elected from nobles and merchants).

At the same time, Desnitsky advocated that the law rather strictly define the prerogatives of the monarch, state institutions, determine relations between landowners and serfs, parents and children, all kinds of property and personal relations.

However, Desnitsky's note did not find support from those in power, although some of the legal provisions of S.E. Desnitsky are reflected in the "Order" of Catherine II.

The most harsh condemnation in the 18th century was the autocratic form of government of A.N. Radishchev. “Autocracy,” he wrote, “is a state most contrary to human nature ... part of our rights and our natural power, so that it can be used in our favor; about this we make a silent agreement with society. more over him the right, which gives him the law over criminals. The sovereign is the first citizen of the people's society. "

A.N. Radishchev was the only Russian educator who thought so radically and sharply. However, it is from Radishchev that it is customary to count the beginning of the revolutionary social movement in Russia.

***
Russian enlightenment of the 18th century is a complex and ambiguous phenomenon. Probably, the spiritual quest of the enlighteners, their careful attempts to replace the traditional faith with reliance on the power of the human mind cannot and should not serve as an example to follow. The "free human mind" has painfully discredited itself over the past two centuries. And at the same time, so passionate desire educators to unite the efforts of all residents of the Russian state, to find something common for all, to help Russia become a true great power deserve sincere attention. For they tried for the "good of the Fatherland."

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Enlightenment in Russia has been prepared in a natural-historical way since the 17th century, and when it matured, organizers, ideologists, and proponents of these ideas were found. The most different people, even for various purposes, contributed to the Russian Enlightenment.

One of the first in this row, Feofan Prokopovich, saw the goal of the Enlightenment to educate the servants of the state, considering himself as such. Realizing Peter's aspirations, he made sure that they received legal support. In any case, his "Spiritual Regulations" was regarded as a hymn to enlightenment.

Another type of enlightener was encyclopedic scholars of the second half of the 18th century, such as M. V. Lomonosov and E. Dashkova... The desire for education was literally a natural need for them, but it was precisely their learning that they were useful to the fatherland. Having received his education, Lomonosov did everything to make it accessible to many people like him. It was this that gave him the confidence that

"Maybe own Platonov

And quick-witted Newtons

Russian land to give birth. "

Lomonosov is known not only as a scientist, but also as a poet. He began to interpret literature no longer as entertainment, but as a social useful activities, the focus of thought and mind.

In Dashkova, as A. Herzen noted, "strong, versatile, ... Peter's, Lomonosov's, but softened by aristocratic education" were combined. Having served the motherland a lot with activities in the field of science and its organization, she also served as an example for other noblewomen. Dashkova's interests spread far beyond the borders of Russia and the actual scientific activity. Supporting the struggle of the American states for independence, she offered to elect Benjamin Franklin as an honorary member of the Petersburg Academy, she herself was a member of the Academy of Sciences in Philadelphia. Like Catherine, she corresponded with prominent thinkers - D. Diderot, D'Alembert, Adam Smith.

Another type of Russian educators combined organizational activity in the field of education with the development of new pedagogical ideas developing those that came from Europe. In 1763, Catherine appointed her chief educational advisor I. I. Betsky(1704-1791). Developing projects for the education of "ideal nobles" and using the French experience, he opened educational schools at the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Arts, the Institute for Noble Maidens at the Resurrection Monastery (Smolny). Proving in his writings that "the root of all good and evil is education," Betsky set the task of "breeding a new breed of people." For this, he proposed, following Rousseau, to isolate children from 5-6 years old to 18 from harmful influence society.

A native of Serbia, F. Jankovic de Marievo(1741-1814), was recommended to Catherine by the Austrian emperor. As a member of Catherine's Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools, he took part in the development of their "Statutes" (1786). In it, upbringing was proclaimed "a single means of public good." The importance of teaching in the native language was emphasized. Small and main public schools were opened by the "charter". Representatives of the church were eliminated from them, and teaching, including religious teaching, was entrusted to civilians. The class-lesson system was approved. Thanks to the reform he carried out, by the end of the 18th century, there were already 315 schools in Russia with a total number of students up to 20 thousand people.

Another major figure in the Russian Enlightenment, I. I. Novikov(1744-1818) financed two private schools, as well as travel abroad for education. He played an important role in the activities of the "Printing Society" at Moscow University, which not only published educational literature, but also collected donations for its publication in the provinces. Novikov himself published the magazine " Children's reading for the heart and mind ", as well as the most significant satirical magazines XVIII century ("Drone", "Painter", "Purse"). He is also the author of the treatise "On the upbringing and instruction of children." In a polemic with Catherine, who announced the encouragement of satire, he dared to accuse her of hypocrisy, serfdom and even connivance with bribe-taking officials. Catherine, angrily remarking that “it was easier for her to cope with the Turks, Swedes and Poles,” in 1792 sent an “army lieutenant” to the Shlisselburg fortress.

Another courageous denouncer was exiled to Siberia - "a rebel is worse than Pugachev," according to Catherine, " A. N. Radishchev(1749-1802). Confident that "the Russian people were born to greatness and glory," he demanded an end to the class in education, to educate not servants, but citizens of the fatherland. In the famous "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev, calling autocracy "a hundred-zeal monster", predicted "death and burning with rewards for severity and inhumanity", convinced that "from torment is born freedom, from freedom - slavery."

In the 18th century, all Russian literature became a powerful means of enlightenment.

In Russia, the Age of Enlightenment occupies mainly the second half of the 18th century, when the government actively promoted the development of sciences and arts. During this period, the first Russian universities, libraries, theaters, public museums and a relatively independent press emerged. The greatest contribution to the Russian Enlightenment belongs to Catherine the Great, who, like other enlightened monarchs, played key role in support of the arts, sciences and education. Although in Russia, as in other European countries, significant changes took place in this era, the difference between Russia and the Western Enlightenment lies in the fact that not only there was no shift public opinion in the direction of the development of liberal ideas, but on the contrary, they were met with extremely wary. Especially Russian nobility resisted attacks on serfdom. Nevertheless, the Pugachev uprising and the Great French Revolution gave rise to illusions of impending political changes and had a significant impact on intellectual development Russian society. The place of Russia in the world in this era was actively discussed by Denis Fonvizin, Mikhail Shcherbatov, Andrei Bolotov, Ivan Boltin and Alexander Radishchev. Subsequently, these discussions gave rise to a split in Russian society into Westernizers and Slavophiles. (cm. )

Peter I. The ideas of the Enlightenment were first perceived by the famous reformer Tsar Peter I and his associates. These ideas inspired the sermons of Feofan Prokopovich, the satire of Antiochus Cantemir and the historiography of Vasily Tatishchev. (cm. , )

At the beginning of the reign of Peter the Great, schools in Russia were designed to train clergy. He made efforts to organize Western-style schools in Russia. One of the first was the navigation school in Moscow, created in 1701 to train personnel for the newly built Russian fleet. In 1715, a naval academy was opened in St. Petersburg for the same purpose. In 1707, a medical school at a military hospital appeared in Moscow, an engineering school in 1715, and an artillery school in St. Petersburg in the same year. In the 1720s in Russia, there were up to fifty schools in provincial cities, mostly primary, in which graduates of the Moscow navigation school taught "tsyfir sciences".

The School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened in Moscow in 1701. It was the first real school in Europe. Another real educational institution, opened in 1708 in Halle (Germany), called the "Mathematical, mechanical and economic real school", was private, had few students (12 people) and lasted only a few years.

The Moscow school, which functioned during the first half of the 18th century, was state-owned; at least 200, and sometimes up to 500, students studied there annually. A large number of students belonged to the "lower" classes (children of clerks, clerks, townspeople and soldiers), interested in getting an education and a technical specialty.

During the reign of Peter I, artillery schools were opened in St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large cities, navigation schools in port cities, as well as surgical, engineering and "multilingual" schools in Moscow.

In 1721, the first mining school was created in the Urals under the leadership of the Russian scientist and statesman V. N. Tatishchev, who at that time was managing the Ural mining plants. Later, at all the Ural state factories, arithmetic schools were opened, at some - mining schools, in Yekaterinburg - the Central School, which directed all arithmetic and mining schools in the Urals.

At the beginning of the 18th century, an attempt was made to create state general education schools. In 1714, a decree was sent to all church dioceses on the opening of digital schools for teaching literacy, writing and arithmetic, as well as elementary information on algebra, geometry and trigonometry. In 1718, 42 digital schools were opened, in which, as well as in the school of mathematical and navigational sciences, children of all classes were enrolled not only voluntarily, but also forcibly, with the exception of serfs.

Along with the organization of secular schools, a reform of spiritual education was carried out: primary hierarchical schools and theological seminaries were created, which had a fairly wide general educational program. Children of the taxable population sometimes studied in them. The serf peasantry was deprived of the opportunity to receive education in public schools. Only a few lonely people from the people learned to read the Church from the sextons and home teachers.

For all their class limitations, the reforms had a great influence on the development of education and schools.

Peter I introduced a new civil alphabet, the spelling of the letters of which became similar to the Latin one. They were published Geometry and other secular textbooks, as well as the famous An honest mirror of youth, or an indication for everyday life, translated from the German manual on secular behavior for young noblemen, which survived three editions only during Peter's lifetime.

While in Europe, the king invited new capital many scientists from whom he formed the Academy of Sciences. Under her, after his death, two educational institutions were opened: a gymnasium and a university with three faculties and the teaching of mathematics, physics, anatomy, philosophy, history and law. The second Russian university was Moscow University, which opened in 1755. In addition to its medical faculty and the already mentioned Moscow hospital school in St. Petersburg, there were already medical schools at hospitals, which in 1786 were merged into the Main Medical School. In 1798, the health care system and medical education was supplemented by the creation of the Moscow Medical and Surgical Academy. For the higher nobility, the Gentry Cadet Corps was established in 1731, and the Naval Cadet Corps in 1752. The program of the Gentry Corps included logic, mathematics, physics, rhetoric, history, geography, Latin and French languages, ethics, law, economics, navigation, artillery and fortification, fencing, music, dance, architecture, painting and sculpture. In the second half of the 18th century, private boarding schools and home education also became widespread. The Russian nobles usually invited the French as governors.

Substantial impetus to development scientific research was given by the institution of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, where many famous scientists of Europe were invited. Among them was Gerhard Miller, the second Russian historian, author of the "Description of the Siberian Kingdom" (1750) and the Norman hypothesis of the origin of Russia. The geography and flora of Siberia were studied by academicians Stepan Krasheninnikov, Ivan Lepekhin and Peter Pallas. The famous mathematician Leonard Euler was a Russian academician almost all his life, who not only wrote textbooks in Russian, but also became the author of many scientific works in St. ) and "General Spherical Trigonometry" (1779), the first complete exposition of the entire system of spherical trigonometry.

M.V. Lomonosov. Academician Mikhail Lomonosov made a great contribution to the development of Russian science. He laid the foundations of modern physical chemistry, the molecular-kinetic theory of heat, made telescopes of his own design, with the help of which he discovered the atmosphere of the planet Venus, and was also a gifted poet and one of the founders of the modern Russian language. The chemist Tovy Lovitz, naturalists and ethnographers Johann Georgi and Johann Guldenstedt, botanist and geographer Johann Falk, geographers N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky and PI Rychkov are also known among Russian naturalists of the Enlightenment. (cm. )

During the reign of Peter's daughter Empress Elizabeth, the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism was taken up by her favorite Ivan Shuvalov. He was an ideal enlightened courtier, contributed to the founding of Moscow University and the Imperial Academy of Arts, in which the intellectual life of many artists of the last quarter of the 18th century was concentrated. Shuvalov also patronized the greatest of Russian scientists of that time, Mikhail Lomonosov, who did a lot in the most diverse fields of natural science, as well as in poetry, religious philosophy and the visual arts.

The amazing versatile activity of the great son of the Russian people MV Lomonosov was inspired by his passionate patriotic desire to make his beloved homeland powerful, rich and enlightened.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765), the son of a Pomor peasant, first studied in his village near Kholmogory with home teachers from the textbooks of Smotritsky and Magnitsky. At the age of nineteen he came to Moscow on foot and, hiding his peasant origin, entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, from where he was sent as one of the best students to the academic gymnasium in St. Petersburg. In 1736 he was sent to continue his education abroad, where he studied with the greatest scientists.

In 1741 Lomonosov became an associate of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, then in 1745 - a professor of chemistry, and later - an academician. His activities were extremely versatile and effective; he created a number of new branches of science. “Combining extraordinary willpower with extraordinary power of concept, Lomonosov embraced all branches of education ... Historian, Rhetorician, Mechanic, Chemist, Mineralogist, Artist and Poet - he experienced everything and penetrated everything,” wrote A. Pushkin.

Lomonosov was the creator of Russian classical philosophy, the founder of philosophical materialism, scientific natural science. He discovered the universal law of nature - the law of conservation of matter and motion, which underlies natural science. The name of Lomonosov is associated with the creation of Russian grammar and the formation of a literary language in Russia, which had great value for further development literature, poetry, art. Lomonosov enriched the vocabulary of the Russian language with scientific terms, the first of the academicians gave lectures on physics and wrote scientific works in Russian.

Lomonosov waged an irreconcilable struggle with those reactionary scientists who hindered the development of Russian science and the training of "Russian scientists", using the support of the court ignoramuses who acted for selfish ends. He indignantly spoke about the fact that the peasants were denied access to educational institutions, in every possible way sought the organization of a non-class school in Russia. In the patriotic struggle of Lomonosov for the development of Russian science great place occupied him pedagogical activity at the university and gymnasium at the Academy of Sciences.

Heading these educational institutions since 1758, Lomonosov determined general rules the work of the gymnasium and the university, developed the curriculum of the gymnasium and the schedule educational work University, established the principles and methods of teaching in these educational institutions. In the "Regulations for the Academic Gymnasium" drawn up by him in 1758, Lomonosov defended the idea of ​​the general educational and non-class character of the secondary school.

For the gymnasium and university, he created a number of textbooks. In 1748 he wrote "Rhetoric", in 1755 - "Russian grammar", which for 50 years were the best educational manuals of the Russian comprehensive school... They applied the advanced teaching of Lomonosov about language and literature, which, in his opinion, reflect real relationship reality. Lomonosov wrote a book on history. In the textbook "Experimental Physics" he translated, natural phenomena were explained in the spirit of philosophical materialism. In this book, for the first time, not a dogmatic presentation of physical laws was given, but a description of physical experiments that lead students to an understanding of the laws of physics. Lomonosov took an active part in the creation of Moscow University.

Catherine II. As in the rest of Europe, to the Russian Enlightenment strong influence provided the Enlightenment of France. This influence was strongest during the reign of Catherine II. Catherine is usually considered the model of an enlightened despot. As you know, she maintained friendly correspondence with Voltaire and Diderot, founded one of the largest museums in the world - the Hermitage, the Free Economic Society and the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg, three institutions that are most important for the subsequent spread of education and enlightenment in Russia. Famous foreigners from European countries aspired to the court of Catherine: Denis Diderot, Leonard Euler, Peter Pallas and Alessandro Cagliostro. When in France edition Encyclopedias was banned, Catherine offered Diderot to finish his work in Russia. (cm. , )

The country needed literate, educated personnel. Therefore, in 1786, the "Charter for public schools in the Russian Empire" was issued, according to which four-year public schools were opened in each provincial town, and small public schools, working according to unified state programs, in county towns.

In 1768, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. When Catherine was given Special attention development of women's education, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics room, an anatomical theater were founded, Botanical Garden, tool shops, printing house, library, archive. The Russian Academy was founded on October 11, 1783.

In May 1764, the first educational institution for girls in Russia was founded - the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. Next, the Novodevichy Institute was opened for the education of bourgeois girls. Soon, Catherine II drew attention to the Land Gentry Corps, and in 1766 its new charter was adopted. While developing the Decree “Institutions for the Governance of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire” in 1775, Catherine II actively began to resolve problems in education. The duty to open schools at the provincial and district level was entrusted to her by the orders of public charity.

The inadequacy of government measures was criticized not only by Novikov and Radishchev. Prominent publicist and historian Mikhail Shcherbatov, whose ideas of freedom were strongly influenced by the work of Rousseau, believed that Russia needed a truly mass education. Ivan Betskoy also advocated the reform of the educational system. His proposals were partially embodied in the organization of the Smolny Institute, the first educational institution in Russia for women of noble birth. This project was, in turn, a practical embodiment of the ideas of the French educator François Fenelon, who believed that women's education was the key to changing public morality in general. The famous director of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and Arts, Ekaterina Dashkova, is often considered one of the founders of suffrageism. She, in particular, reformed the Russian Academy on the model of the French. Even Russian Orthodox Church partly fell under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Moscow Metropolitan Platon (Levshin) called for a reform of spiritual education and religious tolerance.

Although Orthodoxy was still the state religion, Catherine, following the advice of her enlightened friends, spent whole line reforms, in particular the secularization of most of the Russian monasteries. For the commission, an Instruction was drawn up, which contained many ideas of the state structure, the authorship of which belongs to Cesare Beccaria and Montesquieu. Although the Nakaz had no practical consequences for limiting the autocracy regime, the legislative activity served as some incentive for the spread of liberal ideas; its culmination was the appearance of Radishchev's book A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow (1790).

However, Catherine's enthusiasm for the French Encyclopedias and the ideas of its creators did not affect the regime of its own absolute power, and when, after the American and French revolutions, it turned out that the Enlightenment had a strong influence on political life, Nikolai Novikov was imprisoned for freethinking, Radishchev was exiled to hard labor, and his works, like those of Voltaire, were burned and banned. The Constitution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of May 3, 1791 was regarded by Catherine as Jacobin and dangerous in its influence on Russia and its own influence in Poland. As a result, the Russian-Polish war broke out in 1792, followed by the partitions of Poland. This turn from the policy of the Enlightenment was called counter-enlightenment.

N.I. Novikov. The famous educator-teacher of the second half of the 18th century Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818) was brought up at Moscow University, where his worldview was formed and then developed educational activities... Novikov led a social movement to organize public schools independent of the tsarist government, directing a public initiative to create schools for the underprivileged population. He strove to help home teachers correctly organize the teaching of children and published a lot of educational literature: alphabet books, primers, textbooks on various subjects... Novikov was the creator and editor of the first in Russia children's magazine"Children's reading for the heart and mind", the publication of which was then handed over to the famous historian and writer N. M. Karamzin. VG Belinsky subsequently spoke about this journal very positively. In his satirical magazines "Truten", "Painter" and other publications, Novikov published articles on pedagogical themes, attracting public attention to education issues. (cm. )

In education, Novikov saw the main means of resolving social issues... Novikov called for the moral improvement of people, believing that they would become virtuous if they were enlightened and educated, sought to reconcile science with religion and saw in religious education component part moral education children and youth.

The goal of upbringing, in his opinion, is to form an active virtuous personality, directing his activities to benefit the fatherland and his fellow citizens. Every person is the more useful to the state, the more enlightened his mind, and Novikov insisted on giving children a broad and versatile mental education. Guided by the idea of ​​the nationality of upbringing, which occupies a large place in all its pedagogical system Novikov believed that children should first of all learn their native language and literature, the history and geography of their country. In the content of training, he included "elementary foundations" of both the humanities and the exact sciences, as well as knowledge about nature.

Novikov believed that children need to study the world of plants and animals, get acquainted with labor activity people and with labor processes... While in noble Russia, the younger generation was instilled in contempt for common people engaged in physical labor, he openly called on educators to instill in children respect for workers.

In the field of moral education, Novikov also made many valuable proposals. He considered it necessary to love and respect children, to bring them up on positive examples, make them think about the motives of their actions, constantly exercise in moral actions. Novikov strongly opposed physical punishment. It is very important to instill in children a love of truth and a firm intention to defend the truth, with early years to accustom children to useful work.

In the magazine "Addition to the Moskovsky Vedomosti" Novikov published a wonderful article "On the upbringing and guidance of children. For the dissemination of generally useful knowledge and general well-being. " This is the most important pedagogical work his time, which deals with issues of physical, moral and mental education... The author called for the development of pedagogy as a theory of upbringing, argued that there are already "enough materials for this science, which can be called pedagogy," wide circle readers of his publications, parents and educators with information already available in pedagogy about how to educate children. The activities and views of Novikov had a great influence on the formation of the worldview of the progressive people of Russia, in particular, A.N. Radishchev.

A.N. Radishchev. The largest representative of progressive pedagogical thought in Russia in the second half of the 18th century is the founder of the Russian revolutionary movement, Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802).

He relied on the scientific discoveries of Lomonosov, whom he admired, considering his views to be the pinnacle of scientific thought in the 18th century. He developed the advanced positions of Russian philosophical materialism in views of nature, the origin of man and his consciousness. Radishchev admitted the presence outside world, his materiality, cognizability, and the official church ideology and Masonic teachings he called mystical nonsense, reminiscent of the old days of scholasticism. (cm. )

A.N. Radishchev's pedagogical views reflect strong and weak sides his materialism and revolutionary educational views. He viewed man as a material being - part of nature.

The main task of education Radishchev considered the formation of a person with civic consciousness, high moral qualities who loves his fatherland most of all. Unlike many contemporary thinkers, he believed that only a person who is capable of actively fighting the autocracy for the benefit of the oppressed people can be a true patriot. He expounded these lofty thoughts in his wonderful essay "Conversation about the Son of the Fatherland".

In his main work, A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, he painted a grievous picture of the suffering that landowners endure peasant children. He pointed out that the serf system prevents spiritual development peasant children, suppresses them natural ability, dulls their intelligence, demanded education for all children, regardless of their class status and believed that one of the greatest points of the constitution of the state is education, both public and private. The state is obliged to ensure that the growing generations receive proper education that would help develop the strength of the child and make him a real patriot, a true son of the Fatherland.

Radishchev opposed the blind submission of children to the will of their parents. He pointed out that the relationship between parents and children is not their private, but a deeply public affair. Together with all the leading people of his time, he resolutely insisted that the native language should become the language of science and education. I saw it necessary condition ensuring the development of science in Russia, as well as the democratization of education. He put forward an extensive educational program, which was supposed to include knowledge about society and nature.

Radishchev highly appreciated the views of the French enlighteners, but at the same time subjected them to detailed criticism of their theory of the relationship between man and society. He considered man to be a social creature that develops in society, draws its strength from a social union, needs communication with people for its formation.

Radishchev criticized the individualistic concept of Rousseau's upbringing, caustically ridiculed his admirers, pointed out the incongruity of their educational means and methods, emile-like representations of forests, meadows and fields, objected to the idealization of childish nature. At the same time, he called for reckoning with the natural characteristics of children.

The main thing in the formation of a person, according to Radishchev, is not his natural data, but the circumstances of life, all those social factors that surround the person.

Criticizing educational institutions that are closed, isolated from the surrounding life, Radishchev pointed out the need for such an organization of education that would help "incline a person to society." He believed that in conditions of upbringing isolated from society, it is impossible to form a person with social aspirations, interests and inclinations. In his works "The Life of Fyodor Vasilyevich Ushakov", "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow", he noted that in the formation of "true sons of the Fatherland" huge role plays their daily participation in the fight against despotism, violence, injustice.

Radishchev was one of the best thinkers of his time. He had an undeniable influence on foreign public opinion XVIII century. The bust of Radishchev was exhibited in Paris during the French bourgeois revolution. His "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" in handwritten form was distributed among the leaders of the French Convention. This book was translated in Leipzig by German... But Radishchev's influence on the development of revolutionary-democratic thought in Russia was especially great.

DI. Fonvizin. Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (3 (13) .04.1745 - 1 (11) .11.1792) - writer, playwright. Born and raised in Moscow into a wealthy noble family. Fonvizin is the largest Russian playwright of the 18th century, the creator of the Russian social comedy. He also contributed to the formation of Russian literary prose. Fonvizin spent the first ten years in the family. Here he learned to read and write. The opening of the first Russian university in 1755 changed the fate of Fonvizin. Fonvizin was enrolled in the Latin school of the noble gymnasium, which prepared for admission to the university. After graduating from high school in the spring of 1762, he was transferred to a student. (cm. )

During his school years, Fonvizin began to engage in literary translations. “My penchant for writing appeared in infancy,” the writer recalled, “and, practicing translations into Russian, I reached adolescence". "Exercises in translation" were held under the guidance of Professor Reichel (he taught general history and German), in 1762 in the university magazine "Collection best compositions to the dissemination of knowledge and to the creation of pleasure "some translations were published:" Mister Menander's Inquiry on the Mirrors of the Ancients "," Bargaining of the Seven Muses ". The beginning of work on the translation of Voltaire's tragedy "Alzira" dates back to the same time.

The translation of Golberg's fables prepared by Fonvizin is a book of small moralizing and satirical stories imbued with a humane idea deep respect to a person filled with educational contempt for class arrogance. Already here the peculiarity of the stylistic manner of the future satirist was manifested - the laconicism of the narrative, the love for aphoristically clear phrases-formulas.

Fonvizin is widely known as the author of the comedy "The Minor", as a bold and brilliant satirist. But the creator of "The Nedorosl" was not only a great and talented playwright of the 18th century. He is one of the founders of Russian prose, a remarkable political writer, a truly great Russian educator, fearlessly, for a quarter of a century, who fought against the autocracy of Catherine II. This side creative activity Fonvizin has not been sufficiently studied, and therefore, first of all, all the original and translated works of Fonvizin have not yet been collected and published. Thus, the militant and educational nature of his works of art, their place in public life Russia on the eve of the appearance of Radishchev's revolutionary book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790).

On March 7, 1782, Fonvizin filed a petition in the name of Catherine "to be dismissed from the service." Three days later, the Empress signed a decree on her resignation. Fonvizin demonstratively refused to serve Catherine, deciding to devote all his strength literary activity... After writing "The Minor", prose increasingly attracts his attention. He wants to write small-sized satirical prose works. It would be best to print them in a periodical. This is how the thought of your own satirical magazine arises. Unexpected circumstances, which provided an opportunity to take part in the newly opened magazine in the capital, forced to postpone the plan of organizing its own magazine for a while.

In May 1783, the magazine "Interlocutor of the lovers of the Russian word" began to appear. Its official editor was Princess E. R. Dashkova. Behind the scenes, Catherine herself was engaged in the magazine, publishing her lengthy historical and satirical works in it. Fonvizin decided to take part in the magazine and publish several satirical works in it anonymously. The writer fought the empress on her own beachhead.

Fonvizin stands at the beginning of that period of Russian literature, when it was able to see and discover the poetry of reality. Classicism, having played its historical role, has already exhausted itself. He argued that “art is an imitation of nature, but that nature should be adorned and ennobled in art. As a result of this view, naturalness and freedom were expelled from art, and, consequently, truth and life, which gave way to monstrous artificiality, compulsion, lies and death. "

In the works of Fonvizin, dramatic and prosaic, life began to appear "as if to shame, in all the nakedness, in all the terrifying ugliness and in all its triumphant beauty."

Emperor Paul I, who replaced Catherine on the Russian throne in 1796, although he ruled no less autocraticly, freed the freethinkers Novikov and Radishchev from prison. During his short reign, Ivan Krylov became the favorite of the emperor among writers, whose fables became fashionable as an example of allegorical speech on a politically dangerous topic.

The next emperor Alexander I, who again came to power as a result of a coup d'état, was aware of the danger of a confrontation between the liberal-minded nobility and the regime of its absolute power. For the first time convened by him already in 1801, the Secret Committee, like the Legislative Commission of 1767, was supposed to develop a program of political reforms. In 1801-1803. By a series of decrees, state peasants, merchants and other subjects of the ignorant estates were allowed to buy land, the transfer to the landowners and enslavement of the state peasants were prohibited, a mechanism was even established for the peasants to redeem their personal freedom, which, however, only the most enterprising part of the peasantry was able to use. After the abolition of serfdom in Germany and the Austrian Empire, Russia was still the only one European country where medieval serfdom prevailed. Nevertheless, the Grand Duchy of Finland, newly annexed to the empire, became autonomous; its laws could not be changed without the consent of the local Diet. After the war of 1812 serfdom in the Baltic was abolished, and in 1815 the Kingdom of Poland received a constitution. In 1810, a new governing body was established, the State Council, the office of which, on the recommendation of one of the members of the Secret Committee, was headed by the prominent reformer M. M. Speransky, who continued his activities even in the era of political reaction that began with the accession of Nicholas I. Program of reforms was largely implemented only under Alexander II.

Enlightenment in Russia has been prepared in a natural-historical way since the 17th century, and when it matured, organizers, ideologists, and proponents of these ideas were found. A variety of people, even with different goals, contributed to the Russian Enlightenment.

One of the first in this row, Feofan Prokopovich, saw the goal of the Enlightenment to educate the servants of the state, considering himself as such. Realizing Peter's aspirations, he made sure that they received legal support. In any case, his "Spiritual Regulations" was regarded as a hymn to enlightenment.

Another type of enlightener was encyclopedic scholars of the second half of the 18th century, such as M. V. Lomonosov and E. Dashkova... The desire for education was literally a natural need for them, but it was precisely their learning that they were useful to the fatherland. Having received his education, Lomonosov did everything to make it accessible to many people like him. It was this that gave him the confidence that

"Maybe own Platonov

And quick-witted Newtons

Russian land to give birth. "

Lomonosov is known not only as a scientist, but also as a poet. He began to interpret literature no longer as entertainment, but as a socially useful activity, the focus of thought and reason.

In Dashkova, as A. Herzen noted, "strong, versatile, ... Peter's, Lomonosov's, but softened by aristocratic education" were combined. Having served the motherland a lot with activities in the field of science and its organization, she also served as an example for other noblewomen. Dashkova's interests spread far beyond the borders of Russia and the actual scientific activity. Supporting the struggle of the American states for independence, she offered to elect Benjamin Franklin as an honorary member of the Petersburg Academy, she herself was a member of the Academy of Sciences in Philadelphia. Like Catherine, she corresponded with prominent thinkers - D. Diderot, D'Alembert, Adam Smith.

Another type of Russian educators combined organizational activity in the field of education with the development of new pedagogical ideas, developing those that came from Europe. In 1763, Catherine appointed her chief educational advisor I. I. Betsky(1704-1791). Developing projects for the education of "ideal nobles" and using the French experience, he opened educational schools at the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Arts, the Institute for Noble Maidens at the Resurrection Monastery (Smolny). Proving in his writings that "the root of all good and evil is education," Betsky set the task of "breeding a new breed of people." To do this, he proposed, following Rousseau, to isolate children from 5-6 years old to 18 from the harmful influence of society.

A native of Serbia, F. Jankovic de Marievo(1741-1814), was recommended to Catherine by the Austrian emperor. As a member of Catherine's Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools, he took part in the development of their "Statutes" (1786). In it, upbringing was proclaimed "a single means of public good." The importance of teaching in the native language was emphasized. Small and main public schools were opened by the "charter". Representatives of the church were eliminated from them, and teaching, including religious teaching, was entrusted to civilians. The class-lesson system was approved. Thanks to the reform he carried out, by the end of the 18th century, there were already 315 schools in Russia with a total number of students up to 20 thousand people.

Another major figure in the Russian Enlightenment, I. I. Novikov(1744-1818) financed two private schools, as well as travel abroad for education. He played an important role in the activities of the "Printing Society" at Moscow University, which not only published educational literature, but also collected donations for its publication in the provinces. Novikov himself published the magazine "Children's reading for the heart and mind", as well as the most significant satirical magazines XVIII century ("Drone", "Painter", "Purse"). He is also the author of the treatise "On the upbringing and instruction of children." In a polemic with Catherine, who announced the encouragement of satire, he dared to accuse her of hypocrisy, serfdom and even connivance with bribe-taking officials. Catherine, angrily remarking that “it was easier for her to cope with the Turks, Swedes and Poles,” in 1792 sent an “army lieutenant” to the Shlisselburg fortress.

Another courageous denouncer was exiled to Siberia - "a rebel is worse than Pugachev," according to Catherine, " A. N. Radishchev(1749-1802). Confident that "the Russian people were born to greatness and glory," he demanded an end to the class in education, to educate not servants, but citizens of the fatherland. In the famous "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev, calling autocracy "a hundred-zeal monster", predicted "death and burning with rewards for severity and inhumanity", convinced that "from torment is born freedom, from freedom - slavery."

In the 18th century, all Russian literature became a powerful means of enlightenment.